Global Power Grid Interconnection for Sustainable Growth: Concept, Project and Research Direction

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Global Power Grid Interconnection for Sustainable Growth: Concept, Project
and Research Direction
Article  in  IET Generation Transmission & Distribution · April 2018
DOI: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2017.1536
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IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution
Review Article
Global power grid interconnection for
sustainable growth: concept, project and
research direction
ISSN 1751-8687
Received on 2nd October 2017
Revised 4th April 2018
Accepted on 18th April 2018
E-First on 21st May 2018
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2017.1536
www.ietdl.org
Syed Furqan Rafique1,2,3 , Pei Shen3, Zhe Wang3, Rizwan Rafique1,2, Tahir Iqbal4, Salman Ijaz5, Umair
Javaid5
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, National University of Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
2
North China Electric Power University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
3
Global Energy Interconnection Development Cooperation Organization, Beijing, People's Republic of China
4
School of Renewable Energy, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
5
School of Automation and Electrical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
E-mail: syedfurqanrafique@outlook.com
Abstract: Transcontinental grid interconnection and clean energy development for sustainability are the prime objectives to
address through global energy interconnection (GEI) platform. Key issues can be solved through GEI such as environmental
pollution, climate change, resources scarcity and unbalanced development. The growing concern of fossil fuel depletion leads to
the exploitation of renewable energy which is mostly located on Arctic and Equator zones. This study addresses about the
importance, current projects and research directions of clean energy, smart grid, ultra-high voltage transmission, grid
interconnection trends around the world in order to globally interconnect the future grid. The review results provide
comprehensive background knowledge to all the researchers in order to investigate further into the field.
1 Introduction
Driven with the growing electricity demand and depletion of fossil
fuel reserves around the world, the power grid system also needs
an up gradation from traditional grid to robust, resilient and smart
system. The larger grid can only be possible if the urban grid
changes into trans-regional to transnational then intercontinental
grid. The evolution of grid development shows a transition from
low-voltage to higher-voltage as well as low-level to high-level
automation. The core of interconnecting power grids globally lies
in smart grid system focusing on renewable power and assisted by
ultra-high-voltage (UHV) network with connections all over the
world. The global grid system would be well coordinated and
intelligent in order to meet the supply and demand issues across the
world [1].
Developments in UHV and smart grid domains became
inevitable because global energy interconnection (GEI) will be
built up to link clean energy bases such as wind farms in the arctic
and solar farms in the equatorial regions where the potential are
relatively higher than other places in the world. The large-scale
architecture requires extreme level of interconnectivity, and
intelligence which will bring the sustainability in the GEI network
[2].
The social, economic and environmental benefits can be
achieved through GEI. The fast pace growth of interconnected
grids will enable the users to utilise 80% of the forecasted clean
energy generation by 2050 [3]. In addition, the fossil fuel
utilisation is minimised and limited to industrial usage only.
Greenhouse gases emission and power supply per unit cost will be
minimised through GEI. The abstract architecture of GEI is shown
in Fig. 1. The central control of GEI is a key platform in order to
manage and control all the clean energy bases and smart grids
which are interconnected across the globe via UHV transmission
network. Hence, as a whole, central control centre of GEI will be
responsible for the reliable and secure operation of different clean
energy bases and smart grids around the world which are connected
via UHV networks.
The benefits of GEIs are as follows:
• Reduce the fossil fuel dependency and increase the consumption
of sustainable renewable resources which will help to boost the
ecological system by reducing greenhouse gases.
• Global energy grids interconnection will provide benefits
against: unpredictable weather condition, peak-valley load
periods and power generation due to time zone differences as
well as demand side management.
• Cost of electricity will go down for the regions where it is
relatively expensive plus the reliability will be immensely
improved.
• Development and utilisation of renewable energy (RE) will
boost up the economy and productivity of the developing
nations around the world.
2 Development status
RE contributes 4% of the world energy generation [3], and hydro
plays a major role in it. In addition to that wind and solar account
for the 1.1% of the total RE generation. Due to rapid pace in
technical advancements and incentives from government and cost
reduction in RE, wind and solar energy shared an annual growth of
Fig. 1 GEI architecture in abstract form
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 13, pp. 3114-3123
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
3114

over 20% since 2010. The other means of energy production in
2016 excluding biomass energy: nuclear energy 5%, coal 31%,
natural gas 24%, and crude oil 36% [4]. Energy production through
oil and gas in 2016 is mainly concentrated in West Asia, North
America, North Africa, Russia and central Asia, whereas
production through coal is mainly used in East Asia, North
America, South East Asia and Oceania. Annual growth rate of
5.9% for renewable power generation has witnessed by the world
during 2010–2016, in which Europe, East Asia and Central Africa
are higher in growth of RE.
Consumption of energy is also rapidly growing worldwide with
9.7 billion toe in 2016. East Asia and North America are
dominating in consumption of electricity, whereas Sub-Saharan
African countries, Oceania and South Asia have lower
consumption pattern in 2016. Oil, coal and biomass contribution in
energy consumption including transport, industry, commercial and
household are 92, 31 and 27, respectively, in 2016. Furthermore,
the losses for converting primary energy to electricity (secondary)
are 2.15 billion toe for fossil fuel, and refining of oil and coal
losses are accounted for 470 million toe [5]. Hence, fossil fuel
approaches can be replaced by clean energy on supply side and it
can also be replaced by electric energy on the demand side in order
to solve the above-mentioned issues. According to the report, if the
clean energy is accounted for 80% of the primary energy in the
future which can be seen by the consumption trend of 2016, then
one can reduce fossil fuel of 8.9 billion toe, losses up to 2.67
billion toe and emission reduction nearly up to 20 billion tons.
A study in [2], the majority of RE resources (wind, solar and
hydro) around 85% lies in Eurasia and Africa; the region is called
45∘
energy belt. The research focused on per capita and unit land
area installed capacities of RE, and showed that 45∘
area has the
poorest RE development compare to other part of the world,
because the region mostly relies on the fossil fuel export plus RE
resources lies far from load centres as well as the infrastructure is
difficult to develop in that part of the world.
The research status in terms of Journal articles published during
2016 are illustrated in Fig. 2, published articles are shown in terms
of total citation, h-index (published h papers each of which has
been cited in other papers at least h times) and g-index (set of
articles ranked in decreasing order of the number of citations that
they received). The number of total published articles are clearly
lower in case of interconnection technology of GEI because it is
still premature than the other fields.
The paper is structured in the following manner: clean energy
development trends and research directions are discussed in
Section 3, UHV transmission development trends and research
directions are discussed in Section 4, smart grid development
trends and research directions are discussed in Section 5, Grid
interconnection development trends and research directions are
discussed in Section 6 and finally, state of the art techniques are
summarised in Table 1.
Fig. 2 Research status of GEI in 2016
Table 1 GEI research domain
Domain Category Sub-category References
clean energy clean energy power generation hydroelectric, wind, PV, photo-thermal, ocean energy power generation [6–14]
operational control and connection to
grid
access system, test, detection, resource evaluation, power prediction
and cluster control
[15–18]
large-scale energy storage physical, electrochecmical and high-capacity hydrogen energy storage
system
[19–21]
UHV grid UHV transmission UHV AC and DC [22–26]
flexible DC power grid flexible DC and DC power grid [27–29]
new type of power transmission power transmission via superconductivity, halfwavelength, wireless and
pipeline
[30–33]
smart grid smart transmission and
transformation
smart substation, intelligent, transmission line, flexible AC transmission
and conversion equipment
[34–36]
smart distribution automated and flexible distribution, microgrid and distributed generation [37–39]
smart utilisation demand response and energy efficiency, advance measurement
system, interactive services, charge/discharge of electric vehicles and
electricity replacement
[40–45]
IoT for power system communication in transmission network, smart sensing, datasharing,
management, communication of access network, analysis platform,
cloud computing, security of information communication and human
computer interaction/mobile interconnection
[46–51]
grid interconnection planning and simulation of power
grid
planning and simulation of power grid on large scale [52–55]
safety control and protection of
power grid
relay protection and stability control [56, 57]
scheduling and market transaction power grid scheduling and market transaction [58, 59]
3115

3 Clean energy
3.1 Development trends and projects
Abundant clean resources are present in the world. With the
extensive development of wind, solar and hydro resources and the
utilisation of these sources are observed due to the cost reduction in
2016. Installed capacity of the clean energy in the world in 2016 is
around 170 GW, where hydro covers 37 GW, wind and solar cover
57 and 72 GW, respectively. Solar power growth is highest (30%)
among all other clean sources. The recent clean energy
development tendency is shifted from developed Europe and North
America to developing economies including China and India.
Western countries are maintaining high installed capacity growth
and consumption in clean energy, whereas eastern part is rapidly
increasing its share in clean energy development because of
technological advancement and cost reduction. Technological
advancement gives rise to the cost reduction in wind and
photovoltaic (PV), a drop of 18 and 17% in average cost for on-
shore wind and solar, respectively, are seen on yearly basis. A
major drop of 28% in off-shore wind is also witnessed in recent
years [60].
Policy and market mechanism also observed in various
countries which arises the competition between clean energy and
traditional energy power generation. In some western countries on-
shore wind is comparable with the coal-fired and gas-fired power
generation, whereas in eastern regions, it is slowly going down
[60]. Off-shore wind and PV generation cost will continue to
reduce in long and midterm future, as the cost will reduce in future
due to the technological advancements, and it will attract more and
more investments in the future. The global distribution of clean
energy is unbalanced and estimated 1.64 trillion kW of wind power
resources with >300 W/m2
are concentrated on coastal Arctic
Ocean at 70 m height, Central Asia, Qinghai Tibet plateau, Central
part of North American, Southern part of South America,
Mongolia, Australia and North Africa. The estimated on-shore
solar energy capability of 6.39 trillion kW is studied on 45∘
North
and South latitude, whereas the higher consumption is totally far
away from these places.
Clean energy planning and policy have been observed around
the globe through feed in tariffs and green subsidies. The
Government of US released a green power plan in 2015 [61]. It
was the first national policy on carbon emission in the electric
industry which targeted for 32% of emission reduction by 2030, as
electric power industry is the largest actor in carbon emission in
USA. The 2030 sustainable development agenda was proposed by
the United Nations [62] which showed the increase in clean energy
share by 2030, and clean energy affordability, reliability and
development are one of the 17 sustainable development goals
mentioned in the document. India proposed a goal of clean energy
development in 2015, according to the plan, India will increase the
RE share from 30 to 40% by 2030. In another National Electric
plan by India, it showed to increase non-fossil share up to 57% by
2027. In 2015, Africa unveiled a clean energy plan in Paris
sustainable innovation forum COP21 in 2015, the International
Renewable Energy Initiative assisted the African countries to step
forward in the development of clean energy up to 300 GW till 2030
in order to increase RE generation. This initiative received the
support from African development bank and Committee of the
African head of States. The Climate change action Plan by World
Bank [63] discussed new goals for developing countries for
sustainable development and promise to add new installed capacity
up to 30 GW. A revision of the Renewable Energy Sources Act by
Germany is presented in 2016, it mentioned the reduction of
nuclear generation and carbon emission by 2020 and increase clean
energy capacity by 22–60% in 2035. G20 action Plan for 2030 was
discussion in Hangzhou, China in 2016, enhanced cooperation and
development in global infrastructure for clean energy access,
efficiency and investment are discussed. China released its Action
Plan on Electric Power Development [64], and it showed the
commitment of developing distributed PV generation units and
increases the clean energy share from 15 to 39% in 2020.
Wind Power base phase I with total of 10 GW capacity in
Jiuquan, Gansu, China is developed and commissioned in 2016.
Phase I and phase II are about 3.8 and 3 GW, respectively, and
phase II will be commissioned in 2017 [3]. In Haixi State of
national clean energy base in Qinghai province, China is started to
already develop, the 10 GW capacity base will consist of wind, PV
and solar-thermal generation units. The total installed capacity at
the end of 2016 is about 3.37 GW for PV, 0.67 GW for wind and
0.01 GW for solar-thermal power. The total direct investment of
the project is about 13.8 billion dollars, whereas auxiliary industry
project investment is about 6.13 billion dollars. Crescent Dunes
Solar-Thermal power station in USA with a capacity of 110 MW is
commissioned, a largest tower-type molten salt type power plant
with 10 h of thermal storage unit. Noor 1 solar-thermal-based
power plant in Morocco with an installed capacity of 160 MW is
commissioned in 2016. Similarly, Noor II and Noor III with an
installed capacity of 200 and 150 MW, respectively, will be
commissioned in 2017–2018. Hornsea phase II off-shore wind
farm is approved to build on the shore of Yorkshire, total of 300
wind turbines will be installed covering the sea area of 480 km2
.
MeyGen Tidal power generation plant is commissioned in
Scotland, four 1.5 MW generators are already installed and other
60 generators will be installed before 2020. It is planned to install
269 generators in the future. Block Island off-shore deep sea wind
farm in USA is put into operation in 2016. The project can benefit
up to 17,000 families with an installed capacity of 30 MW. Solar
power station of 648 MW is commissioned at Kamuthi, Tamil
Nadu, India. The total area covered by the station is 4 km2
and it
can provide power up to 150,000 users. Jirau Hydro power plant
(3750 MW) at Madeira River in Brazil is developed in 2016, and it
is the largest hydro power plant in the world in terms of carbon
trading right.
3.2 Research directions
Environment friendly and low carbon RE has a great development
and research potential for GEI. Acceleration in development of
clean energy is required in future to improve the proportion in
world's energy generation. Low-cost conversion and plug in play
type high-efficiency generation are required to develop in energy
bases, especially on North Pole and Equator regions. Clean energy
topic is generally divided into generation bases, grid integration
and large-scale energy storage system. Hydropower is the key
source of clean energy against power grid fluctuations due to
intermittent sources. It has capabilities such as fast response on
dispatch command, easy to start/shutdown, large capacity and high
efficiency as well as flexible on load adjustment. However, large
hydro sources can be improved further for eco-friendly point of
view.
Marine and polar wind energy is getting mature such as off-
shore large capacity farms, extreme climatic adaptation as well as
distant remote operation and maintenance. Superconducting turbine
and high altitude wind power generation are the current research
directions in the field. In solar PV system research, it is urgently
required to develop highly efficient conversion modules, flexible
expansion capability such as ‘plug and play’ converter interaction
with grid and easy maintenance as well as operation. Similarly, in
photo thermal development, high-efficiency, high-density and high-
temperature photo-thermal energy storage devices are needed to
develop, plus accuracy of tracking control for mirror field is also
required to improve along with the efficiency. The ocean energy
(tidal, temperature and salt difference, wave energy) research
development is progressing steadily because of nearly 30 coastal
countries in the world. The main issues to solve in future are
efficient energy capturing mechanism, tackle extreme environment
and maintenance of the system.
The research direction in clean energy for GEI is as follows:
develop reliable and smart hydro power control mechanism; cluster
operation for large hydro cascaded plants; dam construction in
difficult geographical location; offshore wind power equipment;
semi direct drive or superconducting or fluid coupling synchronous
generator design; high altitude floating and polar type wind power
generation; highly efficient type PV modules, plug and play
support with intelligent fault detection and warning system; design
of large-scale photo-thermal mirror field; extreme heat collection
3116 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 13, pp. 3114-3123

and conversion system; and energy capturing device and resource
assessment for ocean energy system. InTable 2, the future research
directions of clean energy development are presented for readers.
4 UHV transmission
4.1 Projects
China is leading the ultra-high voltage direct current (UHVDC)
power technology and already establishing world's first ±1100 kV
transmission line from Zhundong to Wannan. The line is 3324 km
and the converter capacity from East to South is 24 GW. This
UHVDC transmission line has employed state-of-the-art
technology with highest transmission capacity and longest
transmission range. Another similar project from Zarut to
Qingzhou ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line is about to be
commissioned in China. Its converter capacity is 20 GW and the
range is about 1234 km. This project is especially important for
Inner Mongolia socio-economic development as it will connect
wind energy bases to the local utility grid. On the same note,
±800 kV UHVDC transmission line from Dianxibei to Guangdong
in China is under construction in 2016, and it is 1959 km long with
a transmission capacity of 5 GW. The hydro power produces
through the Lancang River will be connected to the local grid for
sustainable economic growth in the region. It will help to reduce
the coal consumption, CO2 emission, and SO2 emission in the
region by 6.4 M ton, 16 M ton and 123,000 tons, respectively.
Ximeng-Beijing-Jinan 1000 kV ultra-high voltage alternating
current (UHVAC) is already commissioned in 2016. The
transmission capacity per year is about 22 TWh and the cost of the
project was around 2.72 billion dollars. It was among the 12
projects which were approved under China's National Action plan.
Another 1000 kV UHVAC double circuit and 780 km long line is
put into operation between Huainan-Nanjing and Shanghai in
China. The transformer capacity is about 12 GVA and it will
connect other HVAC and other high voltage direct current (HVDC)
projects around the vicinity. Double circuit UHVAC line from
Mengxi-Tianjinnan in China is commissioned in 2016. The
substations transformer capacity is 24 GVA and it is 616 km long.
It will connect clean energy bases in Western and Northern region
of China, and it will help for economic growth in the area as well
as improving air quality around the region. Furthermore, Ningdong
to Zhejiang ±800 kV, 1720 km UHVDC transmission line is
developed by China in 2016 with a transmission capacity of 8 GW.
In Brazil, phase I Bela Monte ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line
is under construction since 2016. The project will connect hydro
power base of 11 GW at Bela Monte to the Southern region. The
phase I will be 2084 km long and phase II will be 2518 km long.
India also building UHVMTDC transmission project From Assam
to Agra which is 1728 km long and it can deliver 6 GW of
capacity. This project will be the first project of UHV multi-
terminal DC line after its completion. The project will connect
Northern and Eastern power grids in India. Several other HVAC
and HVDC projects are under construction in India with different
voltage levels which will help to connect future clean energy bases
to the domestic grid.
The maturity of UHV AC and DC technology is necessary for the
GEI development and realisation [65]. The requirements of UHV
transmission network must have the following properties such as
long distance, high capacity, flexible configuration, safe and
reliable as well as sustainable in harsh conditions. Hence, the main
research areas in UHV transmission for GEI are as follows: UHV
AC/DC substation and circuit design; electromagnetic environment
control; standard development for equipment testing; gas insulated
line and high-resistance controllable units; project commission,
construction and handover testing guidelines for UHV equipment;
unmanned aerial vehicle and robot inspection; DC controllable
arrester and breaker technology; flexible DC converter, valve,
reactor and breakers; DC power grid control and protection;
standard development on project acceptance and maintenance; and
research on wireless, superconductive and pipe power transmission
performance and design. Research directions in order to upgrade
UHVAC and UHVDC transmission system are mentioned in Tables
3 and 4, respectively. The detailed references from state-of-the-art
articles are mentioned in Table 1.
5 Smart grid
5.1 Projects
Power system transition is inevitable in order to realise smart grid
architecture. In this regard, Australia Electric power transition: a
blue print is developed for twenty-first century power system [66].
This report discussed about five points plan such as carbon
reduction, targeted RE integration, innovation in clean energy
development, smart regulations and consolidate public support by
exploring RE revenues for consumers and communities.
Energy Independence Island demonstration project is started by
South Korea's Ministry of Defense in order to realise smart grid
construction. A microgrid is developed at Gaza Island in South
Korea in 2015 to achieve energy independence. This microgrid has
wind (100 kW), PV (314 kW) and energy storage system (3 MWh)
to support the consumption demand of the island. Hence, surplus
energy is transferred to the energy storage and used as breeding,
product processing and in other industries. Japan is planning to
develop first zero energy city with microgrid technology at Higashi
Matsushima in 2020. The community will have 15 apartments and
70 houses, and the power demand can support up to 3 days in case
of failure of the utility grid. The system will comprises on diesel
generators, PV and battery units, the advanced energy management
system will act as central controller in order to ensure supply and
demand balance. Germany is also planning to build a
demonstration zone for smart grid realisation, reduce annual outage
time to 5 min with highly reliable distribution network across the
Europe. The total area allocated to be 266 km2 and commissioned
generation is now reached up to 120% in the area. Chinese
Ministry of Science and Technology approved a smart grid
demonstration project for winter Olympics 2022. Five things are to
be constructed including virtual synchronous generation
demonstration, flexible DC grid, electric vehicle cascaded
utilisation, flexible AC/DC distribution and cryogenic liquefied
compressed air energy storage. In 2016, electric vehicle cascaded
utilisation units are already installed.
In recent years, the project construction of GEI requires urgent
need of standardisation in specific fields. Therefore, many
organisations including ISO, IEC and IEEE are focusing on the
standard development process of clean energy, smart grid, UHV
transmission and grids interconnection. Technical research and
development demand in GEI domain is now inevitable to develop
the future grid. In Table 1, related domains are mentioned along
with the currently published research articles.
Smart substations of future grid are to be efficient and can
handle severe weather conditions as well as new breakthrough in
power electronics and related materials are necessary to develop
(high-voltage and low loss equipment). Some key research areas in
the field of smart grid are as follows: smart substation information
interaction and safety; smart high-voltage equipment and
transmission; transmission state monitoring and self-healing
capability; intelligent active distribution network; energy
management system and flexible distribution optimisation;
distributed generation plug in play support and energy routing;
advanced metering and demand response interface design;
wireless, battery swap, fast charging for electric vehicle and power
scheduling; electricity replacement and energy efficiency; grid
cyber physical system and quantum communication; ultra wide
band and low-power wide area communication; data quality
management and analysis via machine learning; software defined
hybrid cloud computing analysis platform; standard development
for security and control of smart grid network; and development of
wearable devices for human machine interaction in Internet of
things (IoT) for the future power system. The detailed research
directions are mentioned in Table 5.
3117

6 Grid interconnection
6.1 Projects
Grid connection across the world especially transnational
interconnection has been seen in recent years and it is continuously
expanding. The transnational electric power transaction has
reached up to 765 billion kWh and transcontinental interconnection
has reached up to 30 billion kWh in 2016.
In Europe, two main exporter Germany and France are playing
vital role, whereas Italy, Belgium and UK are on the receiving end.
The trading power is reached up to 780 billion kWh in Europe. In
2016, Russia and central Asia trading power are reached up to 24.5
billion kWh; African countries are reached up to 31.3 billion kWh;
South Asia is reached up to 11.9 billion kWh; South East Asia at
18.4 billion kWh; East Asia at 1.1 billion kWh; South America at
46.1 billion kWh; and North America is reached 92.9 billion kWh
of power trading. For transcontinental power trading, North and
South America are reached up to 1.3 billion kWh; Europe and
Arica are reached up to 5 billion kWh; Russia, Central Asia and
Europe are reached up to 10.7 billion kWh; and among Asian
countries it is reached up to 7.8 billion kWh. Global power flow
shows the characteristics such as flow direction from regions of
heavily rich resources to the regions of higher consumption rate;
Europe cross border transaction is 5. 2 times greater than that of
North America (development levels are also higher); and Russia-
Central Asia and Europe transcontinental transaction is relatively
higher than rest of the four other regions as well as double in
volume than Europe-Africa.
6.1.1 Transnational projects: Italy (Villanova) to Montenegro
(Lastva) ±500 kV HVDC interconnection project is operational
with a transmitting capacity of 1 GW and it is 375 km long. The
power trading cooperation between the two countries brought new
horizons to connect clean energy sources and strengthen their
power grid. Flexible ±320 kV DC transmission project between
Savoie, France and Piemont, Italy has been established with the
bipolar transmission capacity of 1.2 GW. The flexible DC line
connects two countries with the line length of 190 km. HVDC
interconnection between TalukGong, Malaysia and Garuda Sakti,
Indonesia is established with the voltage rating of ± 250 kV, 600
MW transmission capacity, 200 km overhead line and 57 km
marine cable line. Double circuit 400 kV AC line between Zambia
to Kenya via Tanzania is established with a transmission capacity
of 0.4 GW and transmission length of 2300 km. These countries
can share thermal, hydro and geothermal power through the
interconnection. Laos and Cambodia also interconnected through
Table 2 Clean energy research area
Technology Research directions
wind power hybrid-driven transmission chain-based generator for on/off shore wind turbine; self-adapting control system; distributed
wind characteristic design; develop 8–20 MW generators for onshore and 6–50 MW for offshore; cooling system design;
vibration proof structure; converter and control of off-shore turbine; anti-corrosion, extreme temperature and online
maintenance capability; suspension technology; antiradar collision and lightning protection for high altitude equipment, 1–
15 MW high altitude generator
solar PV power high-efficiency amorphous and crystalline silicon thin film cell design; thin silicon slices fabrication with at least 90%
absorption; reduce generation cost to 4.6 cents/kWh; low-cost lead-free perovskite and tandem solar cell design with 30%
conversion efficiency; solar cell concentrator and cascaded thermo-electric devices; selective energy and resonance
quantum contact hot carrier solar cell with 50% efficiency; photon enhances thermionic emission PV cell with 30% efficiency
photo-thermal
power
heat collection heliostat field design for GW-level tower type plant; sampling and calculation time in any point of the field
should be <200 ms; high-temperature 560°C and pressure 25 MPa heat exchange system; physical and chemical study of
heat storage units for fast response and long duration support.
ocean power high flow and low water head generator design up to 10 MW; temperature difference energy heat exchanger; low-cost and
high-strength design of salt difference energy exchange membrane
hydro power 500 m high dam technology; 2 GW mixed flow generator design; 800 MW high head pump storage equipment; large-
capacity 400 MW impulse and 150 MW bulb tubular generators
nuclear power fuel circulating and independent fast reactor design; spent fuel after treatment technology; safety and stability design of
fourth-generation fast reactors; improvement in waste disposal; MOX fuel fabrication for fast reactor
technical
equipment for
power collection
equipment, and topology design for reconfiguration DC collection; control and protection of DC collection equipment; AC/DC
dynamic cross coordination control; voltage sequence selection; fault bleeder resistance and fault block via DC converter;
±320 kV current limiting reactor; high-voltage polarity reversal DC/DC converter; topology and parameter design of multi-
port/voltage DC converter; ±220 to ± 500 kV/400–1000 MW offshore wind power booster
technical
equipment for
control
low-cost resource estimation via satellite for power prediction platform; long-term analysis and monitoring; 3D resource map
and precast access; image data refreshing rate of 1 ms; operation and maintenance via robotic machines; large clean
energy bases coordination control; holographic protection technology; energy management for virtual power plants; power
flow router for multi-microgrid; delay time for regional distributed generation information <1 s
Table 3 UHV AC research area
UHV gas insulated
switchgear
80 kA circuit breaking capability; operating temperature −60 to 60°C; 8–10 kA rated current; 80 kA short-circuit
current; reduce volume and cost by 30%; circuit breaker nozzle moulding; arc extinguish chamber; able to cancel
VFTO disconnector damping resistance and circuit breaker closing resistance
controllable series
compensator
rated 120 kV and 6 kA; high altitude 4000 m; high-density capacity; operating temperature –60 to 60°C; spark gap
and improve solid state switch; reduce floor area; on-site installation and maintenance
circuit breaker 550 kV and 1100 kV/80 kA arc extinguisher chamber; recovery after zero current; improve air chamber pressure and
nozzle airflow; multistage opening buffer; ablation resistance of contact
UHV transformer real-time measurement of coil temperature and deformation; internal insulation; self-diagnosis capability
control and protection
equipment
cascaded failure of large AC/DC system; full wave relay protection and intelligent parameter diagnosis within 1/4
cycle; fault location forecast; self-healing and smart monitoring
UHV AC over-voltage
limiting devices
resister disc for large discharge current; high-voltage ratio lightening resister; low-voltage residual; improve material
design
high precision transformer self and online calibration under extreme environment; operating temperature –60 to 60°C

the 230 kV AC transmission with a capacity of 0.3 GW in
Southeast Asia region. Another project between Ethiopia and
Kenya interconnection is developed in recent years which have a
voltage level of 500 kV and 2 GW transmission capacity. India is
also not far behind in transnational interconnection as India to
Nepal 400 kV AC interconnection project is commissioned with a
transmission capacity of 1 GW.
Iran, Russia, Georgia and Armenia signed mutual cooperation
agreement in 2015, according to which they agreed to interconnect
with each other till 2019. Iran and Armenia have a mutual
interconnection line way before the above mentioned agreement
with the capacity of 300 MW, and both are now in the process of
developing third transmission line which raising the capacity up to
1 GW. The third line will be 268 km long and 400 kV level.
Another 600 MW line between Iran and Azerbaijan is completed in
2016. Furthermore, Iran is in process of mutual agreement between
eight neighbouring countries to become the net exporter in this
region. Van, Turkey to Iran back-to-back 600 MW DC line is in the
construction phase. This 400 kV line will be crucial for the
Turkey's recent power crises and it will bring stability in the region
as well. Moreover, Kashgar, China to Lahore, Pakistan ±660
HVDC project is about to start in 2017, the project is very
important for Pakistan because the country is facing crucial power
crises and load shedding issues with the short fall reached up to
5000 MW in Summer. In 2015, Saudi Arabia and Egypt agreed to
construct 1200 km HVDC line to interconnect two countries. This
project will be very important in terms of Middle East grid
connectivity, plus Egypt also started feasibility study for
interconnection to African countries along the Nile basin.
Kazakhstan to Eastern China interconnection with direct type and
relay type ±1100 kV line and a distance of 4120 km is established
as a global economic integration initiative. Similarly, China-South
Korea-Japan transnational power transmission interconnection [67]
is about to start in 2017. China and Kyrgyzstan are planned to
initiate ±800 kV HVDC line of 8 GW power capacity. The project
will connect hydro and gas power of central Asian countries to the
rich wind power resources of Xingjiang, China. India and Bhutan
are planning to construct two HVAC line of 400 kV in order to
connect hydro bases of Bhutan, and the transmission distance of
that lines are 198 and 64 km. Another ±500 kV HVDC project of
Israel-Cyprus-Greece interconnection of about 1518 km distance is
planned to construct. The capacity of the line is 2 GW and it will
help to connect Europe to Israel for the possible power sharing.
The status and future of transnational power sharing is illustrated in
Fig. 3 as mentioned in [2].
Current clean energy infrastructure and large capacity sites are far
from the actual load centres plus after the integration of wind and
PV sources in the grid, fluctuations will be tackled by the
interconnecting network for safe and stable operation. Therefore,
the grid integration of high proportional clean energy is one of the
biggest future challenge in the field of GEI. Limited existing
support should be improved for clean energy integration against
low inertial power converters for reactive power support, frequency
deviation, fault ride-through, harmonics, phase-angle jump and
synchronous oscillations. The virtual synchronous nature of
converter technology needs to be upgraded in order to cope with
the voltage-frequency fluctuations and low damping issues as well
as symmetric and asymmetric faults. Resources assessment and
power prediction are therefore main subject of research because of
Table 4 UHV DC research area
equipment for 1500 kV
DC transmission
1500 kV/20 GW AC converter valve and transformer; phase commutation failure; insulation coordination of valve in
deep saturation of over-voltage; nano-fluid technology; leakage field distribution; stray losses and overheating of
transformer; 8 kA DC bushing; new material for smoothing reactor; current transformer modulation; voltage divider
unit and insulation optimisation for voltage transformer
flexible DC converter
valve
800 kV/10 GW valve design; assembly of valve; cooling system; on-site installation; stress calculation; coordination
control with DC breaker.
DC Cable 800 kV/6 kA, cable shielding; operation at 120°C; research on conductivity and field distribution; oil filled extruded
cable; joint and terminals
controllable arrester controllable switch design; body shape and test methods; reduce insulation to 10–20%; parameter of resistive disc
and off threshold value; dynamic energy absorption
circuit breaker electromagnetic; thermal and force field design analysis; multi-field coupling effect at breaking operation; arc chamber
and buffering technique; 800 kV/6 kA with breaking parameters of 50 kA/1 msec; insulation coordination; compact
design; ultra-fast mechanical switch design
high capacity switch gear ± 1100 kV, 8 kA high conductive capacity; switch holding force on flow capacity; heat dissipation; arc negative
resistance and oscillating current characteristics; piezoelectric ratio; current sharing and valve plate matching; airflow
field of arc zone; opening speed on gas pressure and plasma parameter
±1100 kV bushing extreme temperature DC bushing; gas insulated wall bushing reliability and insulation; 8 kA overheating
characteristics
converter transformer 1100 kA/18 GW insulation test under extreme environment; safety and transport dimensions; flux leakage reduction
and overheating issues; valve side bushing and mechanical stress; improve anti-seismic (0.4 g) property, coil
assembly and iron core weight reduction
control and protection
equipment
traveling wave and sudden line protection; LCC converter; coordination control of two stations for stable operation;
information sharing and speed sharing; LCC and VSC converter control and protection; quick recovery and reboot in
case of fault/natural disaster; hardware and software configuration software and simulation design; sampling
frequency up to 50 kHz; intra-station communication and protection operation time <2 ms
transmission line
equipment
extreme temperature operation under –50 to −70°C with variable expansion coefficient; cold resistive large tonnage
line insulation; anti-corrosion hardware fittings; wind resistive composite material of 1500 kN
half-wave transmission impedance matching and steady-state power limit; over-voltage, over-current and secondary arc-current devices;
active suppression of voltage and current; equipment parameter design and tuning devices; relaying protection
equipment and schemes; adaptable power control in loading; develop and test 3000 km line
superconductive
transmission
low cost, high critical current and temperature; body, terminal and protection scheme; low-temperature cooling
technology and insulation; design high-voltage class 220–550 kV 10 km line
wireless transmission microwave and laser transmission and reception; antenna analysis for electromagnetic field and parameter
optimisation; conversion efficiency of high-power transmission; electromagnetic shielding and protection
pipeline transmission GIL mixed gas and alternative fluoride free gas insulating property; 1100 kV/8 kA rated and short-circuit current of 63
kA; manufacturing process of polymer cement pipeline
3119

Table 5 Smart grid research area
smart high-voltage
equipment
motor-driven control of HV phase selective 550 kV circuit breaker; current limiting equipment; large capacity
transformer loss and volume reduction by 20%; self-diagnosis and healing capability with the help of big data; 500 kV
adjustable transformer with 30% current limiting capability; 800 kV gas insulated small equipment
protection and monitoring
of transformer
FACTS relay protection device; AC/DC coordination control; reduce secondary chamber floor space by 30% in
substation; wide area synchronous communication control for transformer and substation.
smart transmission line remote maintenance and monitoring in extreme conditions; disaster warning; develop life-cycle management
framework; new nano-material conductor technology and hardware fittings
flexible AC transmission
and conversion
equipment
1000 kV wide band gap devices; high-capacity power electronic transformer; 500 kV static synchronous generator of
SiC; reactive compensator; 500 kV oscillation suppressor; reduce installation cost by 30–50%; 500 kV unified power
flow and short circuit controller; cyber connectivity for plug in play
HVDC source converter
and circuit breaker
insulation coordination; online monitoring and warning control; ±500 kV – ±800 kV/3 GW converter; operating
conditions in wide frequency range; high-speed mechanical switch and compact design of 800 kV circuit breaker
fault line limiter for DC
grid
current limiting technology for fault and topology scheme; super conductive material of FLL for ±500 kV− ± 800 kV DC
grid
HVDC transformer and
converter platform
compact modular design and stress analysis calculation; ±500 kV insulation coordination and fault protection; anti-
corrosion/moist/seismic design of DC grid platform for extreme environment; parameter optimisation of capacity and
inductance by power flow controller; oil filled DC extruded cable; coupling; interference and cross linkage of charges
in 500–800 kV DC cable
fault detection, protection
and control equipment
large-capacity high precision ultra-high-speed sensors; operation time <2 ms; communication between converters
through high-speed data bus; develop a DC power grid with >100–500 control nodes
power electronics wide band gap 3.3–4.5 kV/3 kA IGBT and 6.5–20 kV/500 A-5 A SiC bipolar devices; device fabrication of new
materials; new topology of converters and breakers
active distribution
network and smart
consumption
load/generation forecasting; energy management platform; big data and cloud computing through machine learning
assistance; power quality improvement and robotic monitoring equipment; IoT; virtual synchronous generator and
coordination control; online sensing and measurement; mobile internet; multi-touch technology; cloud services; user
behaviour analysis
electric vehicle platform ultra-high-power density charging/discharging; battery management platform with prediction mechanism and security;
dynamic wireless charging with 80 cm distance and 98% efficiency; IoT support; charging scheduling and new energy
storage devices for vehicles
electricity replacement 50 MW shore power supply for ports; MW level combined heat and power plant for geothermal energy; develop trans-
regional CHP network
energy conversion carbon capture technology; hydrogen production; Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and fabrication; efficient biomass
conversion; power to gas/liquid conversion
electrochemical energy
storage
zero strain highly stable oxide and carbon negative electrode material; structural design and modular stack of cells;
metal-free small lithium-ion battery; sodium-ion series storage; low-cost and high-efficiency flow batteries; ionic liquid
and solid electrolytes and safety analysis; design 15–20 k cycle with 10–20 years life time Li–Na ion batteries (at
100% depth of discharge); 1–100 Ah capacity and 11.5–53.6 cents/Wh cost reduction; build 10–100 MWh storage
platform
cryogenic liquid air
energy storage
high-temperature efficient compressor; improvement of liquefaction and separation technology; nano and micro
structured composite cooling; thermal storage and heat exchange improvement; test and design of 10–1000 MW
energy storage with 50–70% braking efficiency
thermal energy storage modular composite high-temperature phase changing material; energy release control and high-energy density
design; thermal storage design for solar-thermal and chemical-thermal plants; storage density design of 200–400
kWh/m3 with not <900–1400°C
hydrogen energy storage solid polymer electrolyte membrane for low-temperature hydrogen energy storage; high efficient and long life 100 MW
level fuel cell design; high-temperature solid oxide film; high-temperature water electrolysis; combined heat and
power storage with high-temperature fuel cells; 100 MW level 10–40 k hour design with 90% efficiency improvement
of hydrogen production, and 70% of power generation
pumped hydroelectric
energy storage
start up and case switch control of variable velocity storage; locking and load regulation control as well as protection
design of large-scale storage plant; in-station automatic start up/shutdown and load transfer; safety, monitoring and
automatic generation control improvement
smart chip high-speed low-power broadband power line carrier; 5/6 G chip design; multi-core chip design for energy internet
control; self-powered and quantum computing capability; smart CPU with self-learning; breakthrough in 10 nm
technology, and graphine material for multiple sensing
IoT and sensing
equipment
combine sensing via MEMS and CMOS; highly secure RFID technology; smart multimedia processors with decision-
making capability; special sensors with self-processing and power; software defined network (SDN); visible light
communication; multi frequency-based wireless network; quality of service assurance; ultra-low loss and repeaterless
fibre optic design for 1000 km which can operate in extreme temperature; satellite to ground quantum communication;
interactive home, traffic and vehicular support for smart energy management system
big data analysis
framework
advanced data mining and visualisation for Peta/Zeta byte scale data; multiple sources operation and construction of
global energy pool; power forecast and early warning; smart power grid dispatching and simulation; smart power
trading; high-performance software defined cloud/graph computing and real-time analysis platform; mobile internet
and human computer interaction; somatosensory and augmented reality devices for intelligent perception; cross
platform rich media precision simulation for mass customer service support; active defense framework and cyber
security for bulk grid and autonomous self-healing

the intermittent, dilute and disperse nature of wind and PV. Power
prediction is different from the MW-level conventional plants, the
metrological data and complex weather prediction analysis need to
be improved in order to forecast day ahead wind speed and solar
irradiance. Another supporting factor to control fluctuation is to
develop long service life, high-density, low-cost and responsive
large clean energy storage system which can be able to support
against frequency fluctuation and peak shaving. The grid
interconnection requires to address the following research issues in
order to progress for GEI such as grid connection access, test and
inspection; power forecast under complicated metrological data;
cluster control of clean energy; coordinate control of large clean
energy bases; active/reactive power support and virtual
synchronous generator; electrochemical/physical/hydrogen storage
system; automatic control of large pump storage system; design of
MW level compressed air and hydrogen storage system;
temperature control of battery cell; cross-interconnection
simulation and planning; evaluation of grid security and economy
via interconnection; fixed value setting of relay protection; wide
area protection coordination and stability framework; mixed
coordination control of AC/DC system; GEI grid dispatching,
market transaction and information interaction framework; and
contact line power and frequency control evaluation. The detailed
Table 6 is given for grid interconnection research directions.
Fig. 3 World interconnection view [2]
Table 6 Power grid interconnection research area
unified platform for
energy research
wide area load feature analysis and control; medium/long-term prediction of global generation and demand with error
<20%;clean energy time–space complementary feature analysis; technical evaluation and planning for generation bases
and transmission lines; energy internet planning and interactive load; project feasibility and cost–benefit analysis for
transnational projects with <20% error; policy simulation analysis of for electric power replacement for decision making;
comprehensive, environmental and techno-economic analysis for certain policy adaptation; local energy internet planning
and construction; develop global information centre
power grid
simulation platform
high-performance simulation platform; solve numerical calculation for huge AC/DC hybrid system (50k nodes, 50k DC and
80k AC lines); power flow and transient analysis; high precision dynamic process simulation; power system planning and
control simulation; supercomputing platform with mass storage; remote maintenance and dispatching for participants
around the globe
security, control
and protection
communication delay risk assessment; establish a secure and stable control platform for multi-scale coordinated system;
autonomous and self-healing system; optimisation and decision-making control; adequacy assessment index; self-
adaptation emergency control; reactive power control based on phase modifier; central type control of 10k stations with
<100 ms; demand side control; relay protection for transnational UHV lines with <50 ms delay; relay protection for new type
transmission
technical support
for dispatching
cloud data centre for power dispatch; concurrent service support up to 20k users; mass data access from any global point;
milli/micro second data resolution; formulate daily and real-time plan for interconnected power systems; situational
awareness and automatic control; accident and equipment failure relationship via event learning; diagnosis and
assessment via machines
technical support
for transaction
support platform for power transaction; power market and load transfer operation; develop technical support, and auxiliary
decision-making platform; market prediction; buy, sell modes and low loss transmission for large-power enterprises; market
settlement and clearance mechanism; user side decision-making scheme; power bidding via agents; power selling
mechanism and consumption behaviour analysis; net metering for power sell and incentives scheme; analysis on market
concentration ratio and manipulation factors; market supervision and early warning; bidding modes and transaction types
simulation benchmark for interconnected grids
3121

7 Conclusion
In this study, authors presented details about GEI projects and its
relevant technologies as well as research directions. First, a brief
overview about global interconnection and relevant domains
including clean energy, UHV transmission, smart grid and
interconnection platform are presented. Second, related project
details are given along with the research and development area.
Main significance of the study is to highlight the projects as well as
future research directions for GEI. Hence, this work will help to
develop core foundation for GEI so that researchers can further
investigate into the current research trends.
8 Acknowledgment
The work was done with the support and guidance of Global
Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation
Organization (GEIDCO) and China State Grid Corporation,
Beijing, China.
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