Learning

INTRO
■ Learning involves acquiring a skill or knowledge. Gain a mental or physical
grasp of the subject
■ Cognition is the process of acquiring and understanding knowledge through our
thoughts, experiences, and senses.
■ Whenever you see or hear something new, you go through a series of cognitive
processes, which are the processes that result in learning
■ Educational psychologists have come to the conclusion that the average person
can hold approximately two or three learned tasks in their attention at the same
time and can only attend to one complex task at a time

Memory
■ The information that you are paying attention to has to be put into memory in a
process called storage. There are three levels of memory through which
information must travel to be truly learned.
■ Let's say that for the first time you hear that the capital of Bhutan is Thimphu.
This information is now in your sensory register, which holds everything you
are exposed to for just a second or two. By the end of this sentence, you may
have already forgotten the capital of Bhutan.
■ If you pay attention and reread the sentence, however, that information will
move from the sensory register into short-term memory. This area of your
memory will hold information anywhere from 20 seconds up to a minute. If you
rehearse the information, such as repeating it to yourself, taking notes or
studying it, it has the chance to move to your long-term memory. This area
will hold information indefinitely and has an unlimited capacity.

■ Now that you've paid attention and moved the information into memory, it's
important that your brain organize this information so it can be retrieved later.
■ Encoding can work through a number of processes, such as developing verbal
mnemonics or the delightfully named method of loci, but the ultimate goal is to
assign a specific meaning to something you have learned.
■ The mnemonic for remembering the planet's order comes to mind: ‘M VEM J
SUN P.' Remember this and you can quickly recall the names and order of all
the planets. Retrieval goes hand-in-hand with encoding by simply reversing the
process of encoding. If you want to remember which planet is fourth from the
sun, just run through your mnemonic and you have your answer. Since the
fourth word is M, the fourth planet is Mars!

Learning
Learning is the means by which a person acquires and
develops
•new knowledge,
•skills,
•capabilities,
•behaviors
•and attitudes.

Learning has happened when people can demonstrate that
•they know something that they did not know before
(insights, realizations as well as facts)
•and when they can do something they could not do
before (skills).
Learning

Impart
KNOWLEDGE
What is Learning?
RECALLING DOING MENTAL
Theory
Information
Facts & Figures
Concept
Practical
Doing something
Mental Response
Mental Reaction
Prejudice
Tendency
Improve
ATTITUDE
Develop
SKILLS
ADD- ON ADD- ON SUBSTITUTION

How do people learn?
Through our 5 senses
SIGHT
HEARING
SMELL
TOUCH
TASTE

10
13
23
27
30
47
51
58
62
79
40
10

Numbers from 1 to 49
10
13
23 27 30
47
40
11

Look at these pictures carefully

What do we learn from these exercises?
• Retention is more by seeing than hearing.
• Information given in logical pattern is better retained.
• Information given in the beginning and the end is retained more.
• Learning is easier if the range is known.

What I hear, I forget;
What I see, I remember;
What I do, I understand.

WE REMEMBER
10% of what we READ
20% of what we HEAR
30% of what we SEE
50% of what we SEE and HEAR
70% of what we TALK OVER with others
80% of what we USE and DO
95% of what we TEACH others

TRAINEES REMEMBER
10% of what they READ
20% of what they HEAR
30% of what they SEE
50% of what they SEE and HEAR
70% of what they TALK OVER with others
80% of what they USE and DO
95% of what they TEACH others

Nature of learning Process
1. Learning is a continuous process.
2. We all have a thirst for learning.
3. Learning comes from doing.

1. Unconscious Incompetence
2. Conscious Incompetence
3. Conscious Competence
4. Unconscious Competence
STAGES OF LEARNING

Process of Learning
1. Acquiring knowledge
2. Assimilation or Retention
3. Internalization of new knowledge
4. Application of new Learning
5. Using Learning in All situations
6. Self Monitored Learning

SIX LEVELS OF LEARNING
EVALUATION
SYNTHESIS
ANALYSIS
APPLICATION
COMPREHENSION
KNOWLEDGE

Learning Theories
■ Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how information is
absorbed, processed, and retained during learning.
Stimulus Response Theories
Cognitive Theories
Adult Learning Theories
Social Learning Theories
Experiential Learning Theories

Stimulus Response Theories
Learning
Behaviouristic
Model
Stimulus- Response
Theories
Classical
Conditioning by
Pavlov
Instrumental
Conditioning by
Thorndike
Operant Conditioning
by Skinner
A behaviorist theory is based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced
will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end

Examples
■ A woman worker has bad experience with two consecutive male bosses. They
aroused anger, anxiety etc in her. Because of stimulus generalization, other men
elicit same feelings in her when she encounters them. As a result, the woman
worker may develop a negative attitude towards men
■ On a person’s first visit to the dentist, the sound of the drill may not have any effect
on him/ her until the dentist starts to use the drill. Next time, just the sight and sound
of the drill will arouse pain and discomfort in the person
■ In classroom learning, classical conditioning influences emotional behaviour. This
can be noticed in a student’s orientation towards a particular teacher or subject. If a
teacher or subject produces feelings of either fear and anxiety or excitement in a
student, then the student in the first case would avoid the subject or teacher but in
the second case will look forward to attending the class to learn new things
■ When you smell your favourite food, you may immediately feel very hungry

Instrumental Conditioning
■ Instrumental conditioning involves
learning the association between a response
and its consequences (what happens
immediately after that response).
■ E. L. Thorndike studied this process, often
called "trial and error" learning, at the end of the
19th century. (As B. F. Skinner later pointed out,
"trial and success" learning is a more accurate
description.)
■ Based on his studies of chicks and cats, he
proposed the Law of Effect. This law states
that the strength of a response increases when
a " satisfier" promptly follows it.

Operant Conditioning
■ Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify
behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through
operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular
behavior and a consequence
■ Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent grades with candy or some
other prize.
■ Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most
calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily
become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points.
■ Example 3: A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal every
time the animal (for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever

■ Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative.
■ Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the
individual after the desired behavior. This may come in the form of praise,
rewards, etc.
■ Negative reinforcers typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired
or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened
as something considered negative is removed.

Reinforcement & Modification of
Managerial Behaviour
■ Reinforcement is a positive or negative experience which can alter the
behaviours of Humans & animals.
■ Operant conditioning is a simple feedback system.
■ If a reward follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more
probable in future.

Examples of positive reinforcement
■ Positive reinforcement is used to increase the frequency of the desired behaviour by
giving some kind of reward for behaving in a desired way. It involves some kind of
recognition or appreciation which makes employee happy
■ When the boss appreciates subordinate for submitting a report before the deadline
using words such as “Excellent” or “Good Job” or gives a pat on the back or thanks
him/ her fininshing the work in time, the subordinate is more likely to make an effort
and repeat the same kind of behaviour in future.
■ Bonus received by a salesperson on achieving the target
■ E.g. NIIT names a conference room/ office/ training room after its most outstanding
employee of the year. The naming is done ceremoniously – a car is sent to fetch the
family, a cake is ordered, and employees assemble in that room to celebrate

Negative Reinforcement
■ Used to increase the frequency of the desired behaviour in people by helping
them understand the consequences of undesirable behaviour
■ E.g. If the boss reprimands his/her secy everytime he/she makes a spelling
mistake in a letter but doesn’t when there’s no mistake This way secy will try and
avoid making mistakes to ensure that she is not reprimanded againg.
■ Deducting a full day leave for people coming late for more than 3 consecutive
days

Punishment
■ Creating an undesirable situation to decrease an undesirable behaviour. It
attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviours from occuring again.
Should be used only if positive and negative reinforcement cannot be used or
have failed to produce the necessary results.
■ E.g. Demoting or suspending an employee for violating work rules, can
negatively affect a person’s psychological/ emotional balance.

Extinction
■ It removes all stimuli that reinforce a particular behaviour
leading to stop or weakning of that behaviour. i.e. Any
behaviour not followed by a consequence will disappear on
its own.
■ When Skinner’s rat pushed the lever again and again but no
food got dropped in the box, the rat stopped pushing the
lever
■ Some product promises weight loss in 10 days. You continue
taking that religiously for 10 days but nothing happens, so
extinction is likely to follow

Cognitive Theories
Learning
Cognitive
Theories
Cognitive
Dissonance by
Festinger
Lateral Thinking
by
de Bono
Information processing leads to understanding & Retention

Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
■ According to this theory, individuals tend to
seek consistency among their cognitions
(knowlege, beliefs & opinions).
■ When there is inconsistency between
attitudes or behaviours, something must
change to eliminate the dissonance.
■ In case of discrepancy between attitude
and behaviour, it is most likely that attitude
will change to accommodate the
behaviour.

Ways to eliminate dissonance
1. Reduce the importance of dissonant beliefs
2. Add more consonant beliefs and outweigh the dissonant beliefs
3. Change the dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent
e.g. Consider someone who buys an expensive car but discovers that it is not
comfortable on long drives. Dissonance exists between the beliefs that a good car
has been bought and a good car should be comfortable. Dissonance could be
eliminated by deciding that it doesn’t matter that the car is uncomfortable on long
drives, since it is meant for short trips (thereby reducing the importance of
dissonant belief) or focussing on the car’s strengths, such as safety, appearance,
handling (thereby adding more consonant beliefs). Getting rid of the car could also
eliminate dissonance, but this behaviour is a lot harder to achieve than changing
beliefs.

Theory of Lateral Thinking
■ Novel solutions to problems. Based on the premise that many problems require
a different perspective to solve successfully. Four critical factors associated with
lateral thinking:
– Recognizing dominant ideas that polarize perception of a problem
– Searching for different ways of looking at things
– Relaxation of rigid control of thinking
– Use of chance to encourage other ideas

Adult Learning Theories
Learning
Adult
Learning
Theories
Theory of
Andragogy by
Knowle
Theory of
adult learning
by Cross

Theory of Anadragogy
■ Adults are self directed and expect to take responsibilities for decisions.
Assumptions of Andragogy:
1. Adults need to know why they need to learn something
2. Adults need to learn experientially
3. Adults approach learning as problem solving
4. Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.
In practical terms, it means that it instructions for adults need to focus more on process and
less on content. Therefore strategies such as role playing, case studies, simulations & self
evaluation are most useful. It is more problem centred than content oriented.
■ Instructor adopts the role of a facilitator or a resource rather than a lecturer or grader.

Andragogy examples
■ Knowles (1984, Appendix D) provides an example of applying andragogy
principles to the design of personal computer training:
■ 1. There is a need to explain why specific things are being taught (e.g., certain
commands, functions, operations, etc.)
■ 2. Instruction should be task-oriented instead of memorization -- learning
activities should be in the context of common tasks to be performed.
■ 3. Instruction should take into account the wide range of different backgrounds
of learners; learning materials and activities should allow for different
levels/types of previous experience with computers.
■ 4. Since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discover
things for themselves, providing guidance and help when mistakes are made.

Cross’s Theory of Adult Learning
■ Cross (1981) presents the Characteristics
of Adults as Learners (CAL) model in the
context of her analysis of lifelong learning
programs
■ The CAL model consists of two classes of
variables: personal characteristics and
situational characteristics. Personal
characteristics include: aging, life phases,
and developmental stages. These three
dimensions have different characteristics
as far as lifelong learning is concerned.
Aging results in the deterioration of certain
sensory-motor abilities (e.g., eyesight,
hearing, reaction time) while intelligence
abilities (e.g., decision-making skills,
reasoning, vocabulary) tend to improve

Principals of CAL Model
■ Adult learning programs should capitalize on the experience of participants.
■ Adult learning programs should adapt to the aging limitations of the participants.
■ Adults should be challenged to move to increasingly advanced stages of personal development.
■ Adults should have as much choice as possible in the availability and organization of learning
programs.
■ Example - Consider three adults: a nursing student, a new parent, and a middle-aged social worker
about to take a course on child development. Each of these individuals differs in age (20,30,40) and
life/developmental phases (adolescent/searching, young/striving, mature/stable). They also differ in
terms of situational characteristics: for the nursing student, the course is full-time and compulsory,
for the parent, it is part-time and optional; for the social worker it is part-time but required. According
to the CAL model, a different learning strategy might be necessary for these three individuals to
accommodate the differences in personal and situational characteristics.

Social Learning Theories
Learning
Social
Learning
Theories
Modelling
Theory by
Bandura
Social
Cognition by
Vygotsky

Modelling theory
■ People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors[1]. “Most human
behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.”
Necessary conditions for effective modeling:
■ Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective
valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level,
perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.
■ Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive
organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
■ Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.
■ Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism),
promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)

Experiential Learning Theory
■ Experiential learning is the process of learning through experience, and is
more specifically defined as "learningthrough reflection on doing".
Learning
Experiential
Learning
Theory
Kolb’s Theory
of Learning

Characteristics of Experiential
Learning
1. People learn best from their own experiences
2. What people do is more important than what they know
3. It moves beyond knowledge to applying the skill by generating a learning experience
4. To be remembered and retained, the learning process should be enjoyable , motivating &
rewarding
5. Respects the individual’s ideas and choices
6. It provides an opportunity to take on challenge in an atmosphere of support
7. It generates space and time to allow one to stand back and reflect when pressure or doubts
become too strong
8. Cultivates a realization that the attempt at doing something new or different is more
significant than the result
9. Produces an awareness that effective learning requires small controlled steps outside comfort
zones.

Learning

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