1. Transformers: Metering, Heating and
Harmonics
Michael Robert Larkin
Managing Director at Tortech Pty Ltd
ENGINEERS
AUSTRALIA
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2. Coal Mining Steel Plant
High- Speed Railway Solar & Wind Power Plants2
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OUTLINE
Harmonics and three phase
transformers
Three-phase metering units for solar
installation
CT design under power grid harmonic
conditions
Temperature rise calculation of three-
phase isolation transformers
Design of suitable enclosure for three-
phase transformers under harmonic
conditions2
4. Harmonics and three phase transformers
What Are Harmonics?
4
+
+
+
+
50 Hz
(Fundamental
Frequency)
150 Hz
(h=3)
250 Hz
(h=5)
350 Hz
(h=7)
450 Hz
(h=9)
Non-Sinusoidal Signal
Defined by ANSI/IEEE Std. 519-1981
Distorting the waveform and changing its magnitude.
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5. Three-phase metering units for solar installation
33KV Metering Unit
22 KV Metering Unit with 3 phase Current Transformers
22 KV Metering Unit 12 Core CT's
J.S Hansom Pty. Ltd.5
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CT design under power grid harmonic conditions
The phase angle error affects the accuracy of the measurement when
harmonic powers are measured.
The magnetizing current is the cause of angle error.
The lower the ferromagnetic core permeability the larger becomes the
magnetizing current and the phase angle error.
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CT design under power grid harmonic conditions
Power frequencies Magnetic error
Higher frequencies Capacitive error
Increase the apparent permeability of the magnetic core
Decrease the number of turns in the ratio windings
To be Minimized
To be Minimized
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8. CT design under power grid harmonic conditions
550kv Current Transformer for ECNSW
Cascade HV Magnetic Voltage Transformer
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9. Effect Of Harmonics On Transformers:
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Harmonics and three phase transformers
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Harmonics and three phase transformers
Fluke 435 series II power quality and energy analyser
EEP Electrical Engineering Portal10
11. ANSI/IEEE standard 519-2014: Voltage harmonic distortion limits
Harmonics and three phase transformers
Bus voltage V at PCC Individual harmonic (%) Total Harmonic Distortion (%)
V ≤ 1kV 5 8
1 kV < V ≤ 69 kV 3 5
69 kV < V ≤ 161 kV 1.5 2.5
161 kV < V 1 1.5
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12. Odd harmonics non-
multiple of 3
Odd harmonics
multiple of 3
Even harmonics
Order h Harmonic
voltage %
Order h Harmonic
voltage %
Order h Harmonic
voltage %
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
11 3.5 15 0.3 6 0.5
13 3 21 0.2 8 0.5
17 2 >21 0.2 10 0.5
19 1.5 12 0.2
23 1.5 >12 0.2
25 1.5
>25 0.2+1.3×(25/h)
NOTE: Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)=8%
Australia/New Zealand standard AS/NZS 61000-3-6 limits- Assessment of emission limits for distorting load in
MV and HV power systems
Harmonics and three phase transformers
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13. IEC Standard 61000-3-6: Compatibility levels for individual harmonics voltages in low and medium voltage
networks in percent of fundamental voltage
Harmonics and three phase transformers
Odd harmonics non-multiple
of 3
Odd harmonics multiple
of 3
Even harmonics
Order h Harmonic
%
Order h Harmonic
voltage %
Order h Harmonic voltage
%
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
11 3.5 15 0.3 6 0.5
13 3 21 0.2 8 0.5
17≤h≤49 2.27×(17/h)-0.27 21<h≤45 0.2 10≤h≤50 0.25× (10/h)+0.25
NOTE: NOTE: Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)=8%
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14. EN 50160:2010 Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public electricity networks
Harmonics and three phase transformers
Odd harmonics non-
multiple of 3
Odd harmonics multiple
of 3
Even harmonics
Order h Harmonic
voltage %
Order h Harmonic
voltage %
Order h Harmonic
voltage %
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
11 3.5 15 0.5 6…24 0.5
13 3 21 0.5
17 2
19 1.5
23 1.5
25 1.5
NOTE: No values are given for harmonics of order higher than 25, as they
usually small, but largely unpredictable due to resonance effects.
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16. Finite Element Analysis of Three-phase Transformers under
Harmonics
FEM has proven itself as an effective numerical method that
takes into account the geometry complexity, material
properties, saturation effects and non-linearities
A real three-phase isolation transformer is analyzed and
modelled in Ansys Electronic Desktop (AED)
Different tests were performed to obtain the initial results
and check the transformer characteristics.
Three-phase isolation transformer employed
for FEM simulations
Majid Malekpour, Michael Larkin, Ganesh Surendran, and Toan Phung, “Core Loss Studies using FEM of a Three Phase Isolation Transformer
under Harmonic Conditions”, the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Electrical Materials and Power Equipment (ICEMPE 2019), April 7th-
10th, 2019, Guangzhou, China.
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17. Finite Element Analysis of Three-phase Transformers under Harmonics
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Detailed flowchart of the proposed model in FEM
(2.5MVA, 80kVA, and 300VA three-phase isolation
transformers
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18. Finite Element Analysis of Three-phase Transformers under Harmonics
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Magnetizing curve of the core material Core loss curves of the core material
3D modelling of the isolation transformer under mesh operation
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19. Finite Element Analysis of Three-phase Transformers under Harmonics
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EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION RESULTS
Core loss curves at different frequencies
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21. Finite Element Analysis of Three-phase Transformers under Harmonics
Primary voltages obtained for an 80kVA three-phase isolation transformer
Secondary voltages obtained for an 80kVA three-phase isolation transformer21
22. Finite Element Analysis of Three-phase Transformers under Harmonics
Primary currents obtained for an 80kVA three-phase isolation transformer
Core loss obtained for an 80kVA three-phase isolation transformer22
23. Finite Element Analysis of Three-phase Transformers under Harmonics
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Eddy current and hysteresis losses obtained in FEM
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Eddy current loss
Hysteresis loss
Eddy current loss
Hysteresis loss
24. Finite Element Analysis of Three-phase Transformers under Harmonics
The model in FEM requires validation
Experiments are carried out to evaluate the proposed
modelling approach.
A 3-phase, 300 VA, YD, 415/415 V, 50 Hz, isolation
transformer is fed through the AMETEK CSW55
programmable power supply
Current is measured through a current probe and sent to
computer via a National Instruments PCI 6024E data
acquisition board.
UNSW High Voltage Laboratory
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AMETEK
CSW55
Transformer
Set up Inside
the Cage
Personal
Computer
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25. Finite Element Analysis of Three-phase Transformers under Harmonics
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The measured core loss under pure sinusoidal input voltage is 8.381 W and 7.2194 W for experiment and FEM, respectively.
The results show 13.86% difference between FEM and experiment which demonstrates the accuracy of the FEM model
Primary Current
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EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION RESULTS
Case I:
Fundamental Frequency
100%
2nd Harmonic Component 8th Harmonic Component
0%0%
Core Loss (Experiment) = 8.381 W
Core Loss (FEM) = 7.2194 W
Primary Voltage Primary Current
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EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION RESULTS
Case II:
Fundamental Frequency
100%
2nd Harmonic Component 8th Harmonic Component
2.5%10%
Core Loss (Experiment) = 8.405 W
Core Loss (FEM) = 7.2298 W
Primary Voltage Primary Current
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EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION RESULTS
Case III:
Fundamental Frequency
100%
2nd Harmonic Component 8th Harmonic Component
10%10%
Core Loss (Experiment) = 9.28571 W
Core Loss (FEM) = 7.8962 W
Primary Voltage Primary Current
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EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION RESULTS
Case IV: Highest percentage of each harmonic order defined by IEC 61000-3-6 Standard
Core Loss (Experiment) = 16.19 W
Core Loss (FEM) = … W
Primary Voltage Primary Current
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EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION RESULTS
INCREASED LOSS PERCENTAGE BETWEEN CASE I AND OTHER CASES (%)
Experiment FEM
Case I - -
Case II 0.28 % 0.15 %
Case III 10.8 % 9.37 %
Case IV 94.78 % -
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Case I:
Fundamental Frequency
100%
2nd Harmonic Component 8th Harmonic Component
0%0%
Case II: 100% 2.5%10%
Case III: 100% 10%10%
Case IV: Highest percentage of each harmonic order defined by IEC 61000-3-6 Standard
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K-Factor Transformers
As derived from ANSI/IEEE C57.110, a K-factor of 1.0 indicates a linear load (no harmonics). The higher the
K-factor, the greater the harmonic heating effects.
Transformers come in basic K-factors such as 4, 9,13, 20, 30, 40, and 50.
K-Factor = 1
34 𝑖ℎ×ℎ 2
1
34 𝑖ℎ
2
h is the harmonic number
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K-Factor Transformers
shield between the two windings
smaller conductor section size
larger overall conductors
larger neutral conductors
high quality magnetic steel core
thinner laminations
larger overall core size
enhanced cooling system
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Temperature rise calculation
2.5 MVA three-phase isolation transformer
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34. Temperature rise calculation
Temperature Rise Test Without Enclosure
Cold
Circumstances
test data
Cold resistance 𝐑 𝟏(Ω) Temperature 𝛉 𝟎𝟏
HV 0.2343 LV 0.0002766 8.9 ℃
No-load test Heat resistance 𝐑 𝟐(Ω) Temperature 𝛉 𝟎𝟐 Core temperature 𝛉 𝟏
HV 0.2363 LV 0.0002916 9.2 ℃ 89.1 ℃
Coil temperature rise
∆𝑄 𝑒=
𝑅2
𝑅1
× (235 + 𝜃01)-(235+𝜃02)
HV 1.7 K LV 12.38 K
Load test data Heat resistance 𝐑 𝟐𝐥(Ω) Temperature 𝛉 𝟎𝟐𝐥 Core temperature 𝛉 𝟏𝐥
HV 0.31548 LV 0.000372 8.9 ℃ 74 ℃
Coil temperature rise
∆𝑄𝑐=
𝑅2𝑙
𝑅1
× (235 + 𝜃01)-(235+𝜃02𝑙)
HV 81.04 K LV 80.67 K
Results Coil temperature rise
∆𝐐 𝐜𝐭= ∆𝐐 𝐜 × 𝟏 +
∆𝐐 𝐞
∆𝐐 𝐜
𝟏.𝟐𝟓 𝟎.𝟖
Core temperature
𝐓 = 𝛉 𝟏 − 𝛉 𝟎𝟐
HV 81.56 K LV 86.82 K 79.90 K
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Temperature rise calculation
Temperature rise analysis for the 2.5MVA three-phase isolation transformer
based on the results obtained by FEM and open-air test set up
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36. Tortech Pty Ltd
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Temperature rise calculation
Number of Doors:
Section Row Column
Total Amount
of Louvres
A0
Row (L)
(m)
A0
Column (H)
(m)
A0
Total
(m^2)
A1 Total
(m^2)
φ
= A1/A0
A0
Total
(m^2)
A1 Total
(m^2)
φ
= A1/A0
A0
Total
(m^2)
A1 Total
(m^2)
φ
= A1/A0
4
Per Door:
Bottom Section (Inlet) 9 6 54 0.88 0.22 0.1936 0.00702 0.036260331 0.1936 0.00702 0.036260331
Top Section (Outlet) 9 6 54 0.88 0.22 0.1936 0.00702 0.036260331 0.1936 0.00702 0.036260331
Total for All Four Doors 432 1.5488 0.05616 0.036260331 0.7744 0.02808 0.036260331 0.7744 0.02808 0.036260331
HV Side:
Bottom Left (Inlet) 12 4 48 1.18 0.136 0.16048 0.00624 0.03888335 0.16048 0.00624 0.03888335
Bottom Centre (Inlet) 12 8 96 1.18 0.304 0.35872 0.01248 0.034790366 0.35872 0.01248 0.034790366
Bottom Right (Inlet) 12 4 48 1.18 0.136 0.16048 0.00624 0.03888335 0.16048 0.00624 0.03888335
Top Left (Outlet) 20 4 80 1.98 0.136 0.26928 0.0104 0.038621509 0.26928 0.0104 0.038621509
Top Centre (Outlet) 6 8 48 0.58 0.304 0.17632 0.00624 0.0353902 0.17632 0.00624 0.0353902 Length
Top Right (Outlet) 20 4 80 1.98 0.136 0.26928 0.0104 0.038621509 0.26928 0.0104 0.038621509 Width
Middle Left (Outlet) 18 4 72 1.78 0.136 0.24208 0.00936 0.038664904 0.26928 0.0104 0.038621509 Height
Middle Centre (Outlet) 18 8 144 1.78 0.304 0.54112 0.01872 0.034594914 0.26928 0.0104 0.038621509 Thickness
Middle Right (Outlet) 18 4 72 1.78 0.136 0.24208 0.00936 0.038664904 0.26928 0.0104 0.038621509
Total for HV 400 1.39456 0.052 0.037287747 0.71488 0.02704 0.03782453 0.67968 0.02496 0.036723164
LV Side:
Bottom Left (Inlet) 12 4 48 1.18 0.136 0.16048 0.00624 0.03888335 0.16048 0.00624 0.03888335
Bottom Centre (Inlet) 12 8 96 1.18 0.304 0.35872 0.01248 0.034790366 0.35872 0.01248 0.034790366
Bottom Right (Inlet) 12 4 48 1.18 0.136 0.16048 0.00624 0.03888335 0.16048 0.00624 0.03888335
Top Left (Outlet) 19 4 76 1.88 0.136 0.25568 0.00988 0.038642053 0.25568 0.00988 0.038642053
Top Right (Outlet) 18 4 72 1.78 0.136 0.24208 0.00936 0.038664904 0.24208 0.00936 0.038664904
Middle Left (Outlet) 21 4 84 2.08 0.136 0.28288 0.01092 0.038602941 0.24208 0.00936 0.038664904
Middle Centre (Outlet) 26 8 208 2.58 0.304 0.78432 0.02704 0.034475724 0.24208 0.00936 0.038664904
Middle Right (Outlet) 16 4 64 1.58 0.136 0.21488 0.00832 0.038719285 0.24208 0.00936 0.038664904
Total for LV 340 1.17744 0.0442 0.037539068 0.49776 0.01924 0.038653166 0.67968 0.02496 0.036723164
Total for Enclosure 1172 4.1208 0.15236 0.036973403 1.98704 0.07436 0.037422498 2.13376 0.078 0.036555189
86.82
19
40
145.82
Outlet
21875
A0 = Total Ventilation Area
2500kVA Unit
Losses: (W)
1.6
2.55
0.003
Centre line from Inlet to Outlet: (m)
Surface Cooling Area:
Dimensions of Enclosure: (m)
A2
Louvre Size (m^2):
0.00013
Key:
Total Inlet
2.3
1.3
Signature:
A1 = Total Ventilation Open (Slot) Area
A2 = Area of Single Opening (Slot)
Transformer Temperature Rise Class F (155°C)
Enclosure Temperature Comment:
Ambient Temperature The total temperature rise is less than the
insulation material class.Total Temperature Rise
Temperature Rise Test
Temperature Rise Measured Results (°C) Insulation Class
Inlet and outlet louvre geometry consideration for the 2.5MVA three-
phase isolation transformer
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Temperature rise calculation
The designed Louvre size and geometry for
the 2.5MVA three-phase isolation
transformer
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Temperature rise calculation
The designed enclosure for the 2.5MVA three-phase isolation
transformer
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39. Magnetically Controlled Reactor (MCR)
Oil-immersed and Dry type Magnetically Controlled
Reactors (MCRs)
Suppressing overvoltage
Mitigating secondary ARC current
Compensating the reactive power
Voltage stabilization
Mitigating voltage/current harmonics
It is a multifunctional device to increase the power quality by:
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40. Magnetically Controlled Reactor (MCR)
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Schematic diagram of primary part of MSVC complete unitMagnetic structure of the MCR
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41. Magnetically Controlled Reactor (MCR)
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Magnetic Core
Thyristors
Enclosure
MCR
Control Panel
Epoxy cast
winding
As defined by ANSI/IEEE Std. 519-1981, harmonic components are represented by a periodic wave or quantity having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.
Harmonics superimpose themselves on the fundamentals waveform, distorting it and changing its magnitude.
Today’s power systems planning and maintenance requires monitoring and recording of harmonic currents and harmonic powers
Two errors are known to occur:
1) phase angle error
2) magnitude error
The instrument transformers with accuracy class 0.6 or better provide reasonably accurate measurements of current harmonics magnitudes, however the phase angle error may lead to unacceptable errors when the current transformers are used to measure active powers.
If such measurements are used to determine the power flow direction even high accuracy class CTs may yield unsatisfactory results.
such CT-caused errors may be misleading, indicating that a load absorbs harmonic power when in reality generates or vice versa.
For precise measurements of current harmonics, the current transformer must have both wide dynamic range and wideband for operation at frequencies higher than power frequencies.
At power frequencies, the magnetic error accounts for most of the transformer error while, at higher frequencies, the capacitive error is the predominant source of error.
The magnetic errors at the lower frequencies (power frequencies) must be minimized by greatly increasing the apparent permeability of the magnetic core, and the capacitive errors at higher frequencies must be minimized by keeping the number of turns in the ratio windings as low as possible.
During the last few decades, the use of solid-state power electronic devices, switch-mode power supplies, and equipment with non-linear current/voltage characteristics has drastically increased.
This has resulted in harmonic contamination of the power grid and accordingly distortion of the supply voltage waveforms that feed power equipment in the network.
The distortion of the supply voltage will result in undesirable power losses and temperature rise in transformers.
This will further result in insulation degradation, early catastrophic failure, and reduction of in-service transformer life expectancy.
Non-sinusoidal current generates extra losses and heating of transformer coils thus reducing efficiency and shortening the life expectancy of the transformer.
Coil losses increase with the higher harmonic frequencies due to higher eddy current loss in the conductors.
The “Triplen” harmonics cause installations to be double either the size or the number of neutral conductors.
Due to adverse impacts of harmonics to equipment or components on the network, international organisations publish various standards to regulate the level of harmonics in power system
It provides an approach to calculate transformer capacity when supplying distorted currents
In order to measure the required parameters for FEM simulations, a real three-phase isolation transformer is analyzed and different parameters such as the core geometry, size of windings, number of turns, and winding configuration are measured and modelled in Ansys Electronic Desktop (AED)
Formulating problems with FEM creates a system of algebraic equations. With this method, estimated values of unknowns can be obtained at distributed points over a domain. The method solves problems by subdividing the larger problem into smaller parts named as finite elements. Then, the equations modelling these finite elements are integrated into the larger equation system that models the problem as a whole.
The magnetizing (B-H) and core loss (B-P) curves are accurately applied and shown
In order to study the core loss under harmonic conditions, it is important to properly consider the effect of harmonics on simulations.
Each frequency component has its own B-P curve and hence the core loss is different. Increasing the harmonic order will increase the loss, and this should be accurately considered in FEM.
The power supply harmonics will not only distort the transformer voltage and currents but also will increase the core loss and the primary current amplitude.
FEM is particularly capable of dealing with complex geometries, and also yields stable and accurate solutions especially when explicit mathematical models are difficult to obtain or completely lacking.
There is good agreement between primary current signals obtained in FEM based on the proposed modelling technique and experiment
This section evaluates the core loss under harmonic situation. The primary side of the studied three phase isolation transformer is fed via an AMETEK CSW55 programmable power supply while the secondary side is kept open circuited. The AMETEK CSW55 programmable power supply makes it possible to consider different harmonics with different amplitude. The no-load loss is then measured by a FLUKE 39 power meter.
On the other hand, FEM is employed to obtain the no-load loss under different harmonic conditions. Different case studies have been considered.
Furthermore, to show the significance of the voltage harmonics on transformer losses, another study is carried out. The input voltage is formed based on the highest percentage of harmonic orders recommended by the IEC 61000-3-6
The K-factor rating is an index of the transformer's ability to withstand harmonic content while operating within the temperature limits of its insulating system.
The strategy is to calculate the K-factor for your load and then specify a transformer with a K-factor of an equal or higher value. In this way, the transformer can be sized to the load without derating.
May have a shield between the two windings to limit harmonic induction.
The basic conductor section size making up the transposed windings are made smaller to limit eddy currents.
The overall conductors may be made larger to reduce ohmic heating.
Neutral conductors may be made larger to limit the heating effects of triple-N harmonics.
The core is often made of better quality magnetic steel with lower hysteresis loss.
The core may have thinner laminations to reduce core eddy current losses.
The overall core size may be made larger to reduce operating flux density.
Cooling is also enhanced in K-factor transformer design.
The MCR-type SVC compensates the inductive and capacitive reactive power by using its magnetically-controlled reactor and capacitor compensation branches.
The capacitor compensation branch can be designed so that it can act like a filter to filter out different harmonic components while still compensating the reactive power.
GT-MSVC complete unit mainly consists of the magnetically controlled reactor branch and capacitor compensation (filter) branch connected in parallel.
The magnetically controlled reactor consists of MCR body, group valve and control part that is connected to the network bus through a breaker.
The capacitor compensation (FC) branch is composed of compensation (filter) capacitor, filter reactor, lightning arrester, fuse, discharge coil, protection and control panel etc. that is connected to the network bus through a breaker.