2. Contents
Vaccines
Vaccination
Properties of an ideal vaccine
Mechanism of a vaccine
Types of vaccine
Methods for production of vaccine
National immunization Shedule
Common side effect of any vaccine
Risk associated with vaccines
References
3. What are Vaccines?
A vaccine is a biological
preparation that improves
immunity to a particular
disease
Name derived from Latin word
“vacca” which means “cow”
It contains certain agent that
only resembles a disease
causing microorganism but it
also stimulates body’s immune
system to recognize foreign
agents to destroy it and keep
record of it.
4. Vaccination
The science or methodology of vaccine development
Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (vaccine) to stimulate an
individual’s immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen.
Most vaccines are given by an injection, but some are given orally (by mouth) or
sprayed into the nose.
Vaccine can prevent from a infection
5. Properties of an ideal vaccine
• Single dose
• Should produce long lasting immunity
• Should not induce hypersensitivity
• Should be inexpensive to produce, easy to store and
administer
• Vaccines must also be perceived to be safe
• Effective in all subjects (old and very young)
• Is stable under various conditions (temperature, light)
• Is available in unlimited quantities
6. Mechanism of a vaccine
When you get a vaccine, your immune system responds. It:
Recognizes the invading germ, such as the virus or bacteria.
Produces antibodies, Antibodies are proteins produced naturally
by the immune system to fight disease.
Develop memory: Remembers the disease and how to fight it. If
you are then exposed to the germ in the future, your immune
system can quickly destroy it before you become unwell.
Once exposed to one or more doses of a vaccine, we typically remain
protected against a disease for years, decades or even a lifetime. This
is what makes vaccines so effective.
9. Killed/ inactivated Vaccine
Scientist produce inactivated vaccines by killing the disease-causing
microbe with chemicals, heat, or radiation.
Such vaccines are more stable and safer than live vaccines
Because dead microbes cannot mutate back to their disease causing
state
Inactivated vaccine usually do not require refrigeration, usually they
can be easily stored and transported in a freeze-dried form, which
makes them accessible to people in developing countries
Chemical inactivation with formaldehyde or various alkylating agent
has been successful
The Salk polio vaccine is produced by formaldehyde inactivation of
Polio virus
10. Most inactivated vaccines, however, stimulate a weaker immune system
response than do live vaccines
Killed vaccine often required repeated boosters to achieve a protective
immune status as they do not replicate in host
This could be a drawback in areas where people don’t have regular access
to health care and can’t get booster shots on time
Example: Vaccines against Influenza, Polio, Hepatitis A, Typhoid ,Cholera ,
Pertussis and rabies.
11. Attenuated/ live vaccine
Microorganisms can be attenuated or disabled so that they lose their
ability to cause significant disease but retain their capacity for transient
growth within an inoculated host
Attenuation can often be achieved by growing a pathogenic bacterium
or virus for prolonged periods under abnormal culture conditions
For example, an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis called Bacillus
Calmette- Guerin (BCG) was developed by growing M. bovis on a
medium containing increasing concentrations of bile.
12. Elicit strong cellular and antibody responses
Confer lifelong immunity with only one or two doses
Example: BCG - Typhoid oral - bacterial Oral polio , Yellow fever , Measles ,
, Rubella , Mumps , Chicken pox
Disadvantages:
Pathogens could revert to a virulent form and cause disease
Need to be refrigerated to stay potent
Also, not everyone can safely receive live, attenuated vaccines.
13. Toxoids vaccines
A vaccine made from a toxin (poison) that has been made harmless but that elicits an
immune response against the toxin
These vaccines are used when a bacterial toxin is the main cause of illness.
Bacterial toxins are inactivated by treating them with formalin, a solution of
formaldehyde and sterilized water.
When the immune system receives a vaccine containing a harmless toxoid, it learns
how to fight off the natural toxin.
Example: Tetanus, Diphtheria bacterial vaccines
14. Subunit Vaccines
Instead of the entire microbe, include only the antigens that best stimulate the
immune system
In some cases, these vaccines use epitopes—the very specific parts of the antigen
that antibodies or T cells recognize and bind to
The chances of adverse reactions to the vaccine are lower
They can safely be given to immunosuppressed people
They are less likely to induce side effects
Example: Gardasil, Influenza, Hepatitis B
Disadvantages:
Of course, identifying which antigens best stimulate the immune system is a tricky,
time-consuming process.
15. Peptide Vaccines
A peptide vaccine consist of synthetic peptides that are able to induce
protective immune response when administrated into host
To produce peptide vaccine it is necessary to identify immunogenic
regions also known as epitopes on the antigenic protein
Epitopes binds to antibodies produced by specific B cells and recognized
by receptors on the surface of activated T cells
Example: spf66 anti-malarial vaccine, Tetanus vaccine
16. Why Synthetic Peptide Vaccines?
Chemically well defined, selective and safe
Stable at ambient temperature
Cost effective
Drawback of Peptide Vaccines
Poor antigenicity
Peptide fragments do not stimulate the immune system as whole
organism vaccine.
17. Conjugate Vaccine
A conjugate vaccine combines a weak antigen with a
strong antigen as a carrier so that the immune system
has a stronger response to the weak antigen.
Polysaccharide coatings disguise a bacterium’s antigens
so that the immature immune systems of infants and
younger children can’t recognize or respond to them
The linkage helps the immature immune system to
react to polysaccharide coatings and defend against
the disease causing bacterium
Example : Pneumococcal, meningococcal, Haemophilus
influenza type B vaccine
18. DNA vaccine
A DNA vaccine against a microbe would evoke a strong antibody response to the free-
floating antigen secreted by cells
The vaccine also would stimulate a strong cellular response against the microbial
antigens displayed on cell surfaces
Why DNA vaccine?
Uses only the DNA from infectious organisms
Provide both humoral and cell mediated immunity
Refrigeration is not required
Relatively easy and inexpensive
Example: influenza virus, hepatitis B virus, human immunodeficiency virus, rabies virus
etc
19.
20. Recombinant Vector Vaccine
Experimental vaccines similar to DNA vaccines, but they use an
attenuated virus or bacterium to introduce microbial DNA to cells of the
body
In nature, viruses bind to cells and inject their genetic material into them.
In the lab, scientists take advantage of this process
The carrier viruses then transport that microbial DNA to cells
21. Attenuated bacteria also can be used as vectors
Example: in yellow fever vaccine, a number of organisms have been used
used as the vector in such preparations such as
vaccinia virus
canarypox virus
attenuated poliovirus
adenoviruses
attenuated strains of Salmonella
BCG strain of Mycobacterium bovis and certain strains of Streptococcus
that normally exist in the oral cavity.
22. General method for vaccine production
Step 5: Packaging
Step 4: Addition of other components
Step 3: Purification
Step 2: Isolation of the antigen
Step 1: Generation of the antigen
Step-wise process
23. Generation of antigen
In order to generate the antigen, pathogen’s proteins or DNA need to be grown and
harvested using following mechanisms
Viruses are grown on primary cell such as cell from chicken embryo or using fertilized
egg that reproduce repeatedly
Bacteria are grown in bioreactor which are devices that use a particular growth medium
that optimizes the production of the antigen
24. Release and isolation
The aim of the second step is to release as much virus or bacteria as
possible
To achieve this the antigen will be separated from the cell and isolated
from the proteins and other parts of the growth medium that are still
present
25. Purification
In the third step the antigen will need to be purified in order to produce a high
purity and quality product
This will be accomplished using different technique for protein purification and
several separation steps will be carried out
For weakened or attenuated viruses no further purification may be required
Recombinant proteins need many operations involving ultrafiltration and column
chromatography for purification before they are ready for administration
26. Addition of other components
The fourth step includes the addition of an adjuvant , stabilizers
and preservatives
The role of the adjuvant (aluminum salt) is to enhance the
immune response of the antigen , the stabilizers (MgCl2 for OPV,
MgSO4 for measles, gelatin) increase the storage life and
preservatives (Formaldehyde, or Phenol derivatives) allow the
use of multi dose vials and prevent bacterial and fungal growth
It is difficult to develop and produce combination vaccines due
to the possibility of incompatibilities and interactions among the
antigens and other ingredients of the vaccines.
27. Packaging
Once the vaccine is put in recipient vessel it needs to be protected from air, water
and human contamination
The environment needs to be protected from spillage of the antigens
For the packing and shipping vaccine must be stored in 2 0 to 8 0 C
Temperatures tracking device is included in each shipment
And finally the vaccines are labelled and distributed worldwide
28. Common side effect of any vaccine can
include
Injection site reactions (pain, swelling and redness)
Mild fever
Shivering
Fatigue
Headache
Muscle and joint pain
29. Risk associated with vaccines
Vaccines also have some sort of risks, like:
The primary risk associated with vaccines, especially vaccines that utilize
live organisms, is that the vaccine itself causes illness
Vaccine may behave as a super antigen and over stimulate the immune
system
Some individuals may have an allergic reaction to the vaccine, especially
vaccines produced in Embryonated chicken eggs and in transgenic
plants.
30. National Immunization Shedule
The first visit when infant is 6 weeks old
2 &3rd visits - at intervals of 1 to 2 months
Oral polio vaccine may be given concurrently with DPT
31. References
Janes Kuby, 2007, Vaccines, Immunology, W.H. Freeman and Company, Newyork,
sixth Edition, Pg. 413- 428
Satyanarayana U., 2010, Vaccines, Biotechnology, BOOK’S AND ALLIED (P) Ltd,
Kolkata, sixth edition, Pg. 211-212.
Kuby Immunology, Seventh Edition
World Health Organization http://www.who.int/topics/vaccines/en/
A federal government Website managed by the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services http://www.vaccines.gov/more_info/types/
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18103
http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/hivaids/research/vaccines /Pages/default.aspx
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19208455