Alloys are combinations or mixtures of elements. Metals are alloyed to improve on properties of pure metals such as hardness, strength, corrosion resistance, etc. Ex.:- Instead of pure aluminum an alloy of aluminum having a combination of Al –Zn –Mg – Cu – Mn(A five-element alloy ) is used to construct the aircraft body. Alloys may behave differently when combined, some mix easily while others will only be soluble to a limited extent.

2. Alloys
• Alloys are combinations or mixtures of elements.
• Metals are alloyed to improve on properties of pure metals such
as hardness, strength, corrosion resistance, etc.
• Ex.:- Instead of pure aluminum an alloy of aluminum having
combination of Al –Zn –Mg – Cu – Mn(A five element alloy ) is
used to construct the air craft body.
• Alloys may behave differently when combined, some mix easily
while others will only be soluble to a limited extent.

3. Alloys
 An alloy system contains all the alloys that can be formed by
several elements combined in all possible proportions.
 Binary Alloy System- If the system is made up of two elements
it is called binary alloy system.
 Ternary Alloy System- If the system is made up of three
elements it is called ternary alloy system.
 In each system large number of different alloys –Series of alloys
possible.
 Ex:- Carbon, Silicon, manganese, nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, copper and Aluminum

4. Mixture Of Two Liquids:-
 When Alloy are formed solid
or liquid solutions can form.
 Ex:
 Sugar added into water form an
aqueous Sugar solution
 Phosphorus added into single crystal silicon they form a
solid solution.
 When two liquid metal are mixed in varying proportion;
I. Complete (unlimited)Solubility
II. Partial (limited) Solubility
III. Complete insolubility
Base
Metal
Alloying
Element
Alloy

5. Complete (unlimited)Solubility
 We add water + ethyl alcohol and stir them upon standstill only
one phase appear.
 This solution has unique properties and compositions. It appears
like one phase homogeneous solutions.
 Other examples :- Cu-Ni, Pt- Au, Ge-Si, and Ag-Au.
 A solution is not a mixture.
 It contains solute and solvent dissolved into each other.
 Solute:- Major portion
 Solvent:- Minor portion

6. Partial(limited)Solubility
 Here, each liquid is partially soluble in the other. Up to that limit the
solution which is formed is homogeneous solution.
 When more Solute is added limit of solubility reached.
 Now two layer formed
I. More Denser one at the bottom.
II. Less Denser one at the top.
 Ex:-Phenol + Water Solution.
 At top water with small amount of phenol dissolved into it.
 At bottom Phenol With small amount of Water dissolved into it.
 Silicon and Germanium Doped with Phosphorus , Boron, Arsenic,
Etc. To produce semi conducting materials.

7. Complete Insolubility
 Each Liquid is completely insoluble in the other.
 Mixture of two liquids always separate into two layers. each liquid
can not be dissolved into one another they can be dispersed into one
another.
 To complete insolubility,
More dissimilar are the components, both chemically and atomic in
size.
 When oil and water are mixed together upper one is oil and lower
one is water, according to their densities.
 Ex:-
 A mixture of liquid Lead and liquid aluminum.
 A mixture of liquid Lead and liquid copper.

8. Mixture Of Two Liquids
Solidify
Crystalline separately solid solutions
 In the Solid solutions ,
 The two components may be completely or partly soluble in each other in
solid state.
 In such solid solutions the solute atoms distributes themselves
throughout the solvent crystals randomly.
 The crystal structure of the solvent being maintained.

9. Classification of Alloys.
 Alloys may be homogeneous (uniform) or mixtures.
 If the alloy is homogeneous, it will consist of single phase, and if it is
a mixture it will be a combination of several phases.
 A phase is anything which is homogeneous and physically distinct.
 Thus a phase is a region of space, throughout which all physical
properties (density, tensile strength, etc.) of a material, its chemical
composition and structure are uniform.

10. Classification of Alloys.
 In the solid state there are three possible phases:
I. Pure metal
II. Compound or intermediate alloy phase and
III. Solid solution
 Thus if an alloy is homogeneous (composed of a single phase) in the
solid state, it can be only a solid solution or a compound.
 If the alloy is a mixture, it is then composed of any combination of
the phases available in the solid state. It may be mixture of two pure
metals, or two solid solutions, or two compounds, or a pure metal
and a solid solution, and so on.

11. A summary of possible alloy structures is shown in the
figure given below.

12. Pure metal
 Characteristics of a pure metal are discussed in the crystallization.
Under equilibrium conditions, all metals show a definite melting or
freezing point.
 If a cooling curve is plotted for a pure metal, it will show a horizontal
line at the melting or freezing point as shown in above figure.

13. Intermediate alloy phase or Compounds
 In many binary alloy systems, when the chemical affinity of elements
is great, their mutual solubility becomes limited and compounds
(also called intermediate phases) are formed (rather than solid
solutions).
 Most ordinary chemical compounds are combination of +ve & -ve
valence elements.
 Expressed by chemical formula Ex:- H2O, NaCl, H2SO4 etc….
 When compound is formed, the elements loose their individual
identity and characteristic properties to a large extent.

14. Intermediate alloy phase or Compounds
 Example:-
 Water (H2O) is composed of elements that are normally gases at
room temperature, yet the compound is liquid at room temperature.
 In NaCl,
 sodium is very active metal that oxidize very rapidly & so it is stored
in kerosene ,Chlorine is poisonous gas . But the combination of these
two elements gives the element used as food.

15. Intermediate alloy phase or Compounds
 The most common intermediate alloy phases are:-
I. Intermetallic Compounds or Valence Compounds
II. Interstitial Compounds
III. Electron Compounds
 Intermetallic Compounds or Valence Compounds
 They are generally formed between chemically dissimilar metals.
 They usually show poor ductility and poor electrical conductivity and
may have a complex crystal structure.
 Examples:-Mg2Pb, Cu2Se, etc.

16. Intermediate alloy phase or Compounds
Interstitial Compounds
 The word interstitial means between the spaces.
 They are formed between the transition metals such as Sc, Ti, Ta, W
and Fe with hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, boron and nitrogen.
 Examples are Fe4N, Fe3C, W2C, CrN, etc.
Electron Compounds
 In alloys of copper, gold, silver, iron and nickel with the metals
cadmium, magnesium, tin, zinc, and aluminium, a number of
compounds are formed.
 Example – AgCd, Ag5Cd8 and AgCd3
 They have a definite ratio of valence electrons to atoms and are
therefore called electron compounds.

17. Intermediate alloy phase or Compounds
Electron Compounds
Compound Electron-Atom
Ratio
Crystal Structure
AgCd 3:2 Body centered cubic
Ag5Cd8 21:13 Complex cubic
AgCd3 7:4 Close packed hexagonal

18. Solid solution
 Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical
substance where solute (minor part) dissolves in a solvent (major part)
to form a homogeneous solution.
 The solvent is a chemical substance and can be in a solid, liquid or
gaseous state. Thus solution can exist in a gaseous, liquid or solid state.
 There are three possible conditions for a solution: unsaturated,
saturated and supersaturated.

19. Solid solution
 figure shows the cooling curve for a solid solution alloy containing
50 % Sb (antimony) and 50 % Bi (bismuth). It may be noted that
this alloy begins to solidify at temperature lower than the freezing
point of pure antimony (1170° F) and higher than the freezing point
of pure bismuth (520° F).

20. Solid solution
 A solid solution is simply a solution in the solid state and consists of
two kinds of atoms combined in one type of space lattice
 Depending on the atom size and solute and solvent elements, two
types of solid solutions may be formed –
1. substitutional
2. interstitial.

21. Solid solution
 Substitutional solid solutions
 The solute atoms substitute the solvent atoms in the lattice of
solvent.
 Ex.
 Silver atoms may substitute for gold atoms without loosing the FCC
structure of gold and gold atom may substitutes for silver atoms on
regular normal sites in the FCC lattice of silver.
 Here all alloy of silver and gold binary system are formed by random
distribution of these two types of atoms in the FCC lattice of
structure.

22. Solid solution
 Substitutional solid solutions
 As shown in the above figure, in this type of solution,
some of the solvent atoms are substituted by atoms of the
solute (alloying element) atoms.

24. Solid solution
 Hume - Rothery Rules.
 The solid solubility in alloy system by substitutions is controlled by
several factors known as Hume - Rothery Rules.
 Crystal Structure Factor:-
 Complete solid solubility of two elements is never obtained unless
the elements have the same types of the crystal structure.
 Ex. Copper-Nickel(FCC), Silver-gold-platinum(FCC) complete
solubility.
Copper-Zinc(FCC-HCP) partial solubility with 35% solubility of zinc
in copper.

25. Solid solution
 Hume - Rothery Rules.
 Relative Size Factor:-
 Fore extensive solubility atomic diameter shall be similar.
 Greater size atom can not be fit in the same structure as a
substitutional solid solution without producing excessive strain and
corresponding instability.
 Extensive solid solubility is encountered only when the two different
atom differs in size by less than 15% called a favourable size factor.
 Ex. Cu-Ni, Au-Pt

26. Solid solution
 Hume - Rothery Rules.
 Chemical affinity factor:-
 The greater the chemical affinity of two metals the more restricted is
their solid solubility.
 When their chemical affinity is great the tendency towards
compound formations or intermediate phase is more.
 Generally the further apart the elements are in periodic table the
greater is their chemical affinity.

27. Solid solution
 Hume - Rothery Rules.
 Relative valence factor:-
 If the solute metal atom has different valance from that of the solvent
atom the number of valence electron per atom is called the electron
ratio, will be changed.
o Ex. Al-Ni
 relative size factor is 14%.
 (Ni is lower in valance than Al).
 The Ni dissolve 5% Al while Al dissolve 0.04% Ni.

28. Solid solution
 Interstitial solid solutions
 These are formed when atoms of small atomic radii fit
into the spaces or interstices of the lattice structure of the
larger solvent atoms as shown in figure given below.

29. Solid solution
 Interstitial solid solutions
 Since the spaces of the lattice structure are restricted in size, only
atoms with radii less than one angstrom are likely to form interstitial
solid solutions. These are hydrogen, boron, carbon, nitrogen and
oxygen.
 Interstitial solid solutions normally have very limited solubility and
generally are of little importance. Carbon in iron is a notable exception
and forms the basis for hardening steel.
 In both type of solid solutions, distortion of the lattice
structure will exist in the region of the solute atoms.

30. Solid solution
 Interstitial solid solutions
 This distortion will interfere with the movement of dislocations
on slip planes and will therefore increase the strength of the
alloy. This is the primary basis for the strengthening of a metal
by alloying.
 The properties of an alloy can be manipulated by varying its
composition. For example steel formed from iron and carbon can
vary substantially in hardness depending on the amount of
carbon added and the way in which it was processed.