2019

1. Keziah Rezaey
5 December 2019
Philosophical Theology in Catholicism and Orthodoxy: An Analysis of Aquinas and Palamas
Since the Great Schism that divided the Christian church into Catholic and Orthodox
entities, St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Gregory Palamas have come to represent the archetypes of
the divergence of these two theologies. It is their careful writings that have been used as the
summation of the religious paradigms that many seek to describe the divide between the
churches. Considered celebrated thinkers of their particular denominations, Aquinas and Palamas
have contributed influential and comprehensive liturgies composed of the beliefs that dominate
Catholicism and Orthodoxy.
Born in 1225 and 1296 respectively, Aquinas and Palamas are categorized as medieval
theologians, living during a time where relations within the Catholic and Orthodox churches
were tenuous. In addition, during the thirteenth century, the relationship between these churchers
and other religious groups were delicate in that large segments of Europe and the Middle East
were still recovering from the last of Crusade wars. While Aquinas was born in modern-day
Lazio, Italy and Palamas in Constantinople, both lived relatively close to the centers of influence
for their respective churches. Despite metaphysical differences between Aquinas and Palamas,
both saw similar beginnings to their theological studies. Born to wealthy and politically
influential families, Aquinas and Palamas showed brilliance from an early age. After pursuing
studies of theology from an early age with an immense passion, both renounced their titles and
accepted a divine call to the religious orders. It is in the comfort of his Dominican brothers and

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the holy men of Mount Athos that Aquinas and Palamas began to develop their writings that
would impact Catholic and Orthodox thought for centuries to come.
Aquinas and Palamas both developed extensive theologies with respect to Catholic and
Orthodox traditions. While Aquinas uses reason to configure an epistemological relationship
between God and humans, Palamas instead emphasizes the contemplative and absolutely divine
nature of God and his mysticism. These significances weave out very different implications with
respect to the relationship between the divine and temporal and the acquisition of salvation.
Therefore, in order to comprehend the theologies of both thinkers, it is absolutely essential to
envision the reality in which these theologians construct.
The metaphysical thought on the nature of reality in relation to the divine acts as a
foundation with which their divergence on religious ideology can be identified. Because theology
is absolutely based on the contingency of the existence of a form of divinity, it is unreasonable
and impossible to discuss the broader implications and applications of their Catholic and
Orthodox teachings without being aware of the ontology of creation in how Palamas and
Aquinas frame it. It is the “most fundamental aspects of reality of reality in general and of human
nature and behavior…[that] is starting with the conviction that God exists and with some
conception of God’s nature”. Once God is established, then from there, “what can be inferred
about God’s nature; its third, the relation of everything else to God considered as the first
principle of reality in general; its fourth, the particular relations of human nature and behavior to
God considered as the first principle” (Kretzmann 2-3). Thus, in a holistic sense, an analysis of
the respective theologian saints cannot be seen without in relation to the metaphysics they
establish.

3. Rezaey 3
During Aquinas’ time, there were two primary schools of thought with respect to reality.
Particularly, there existed the opposing perspectives that reality is either concrete and
unchanging or that which is only moving, changing continuously. Therefore, the question was,
how do we account for change? or how do we comprehend reality so that it is not completely
arbitrary? Aquinas reconciles both by asserting that everything in the universe does change, but
only ever according to the patterns that structure reality and time itself. These patterns are
established and maintained by God, becoming laws of nature in the ways that humans interpret
it. Aquinas believes this to this to a be a natural conclusion from the Scripture in that “[through]
the spirit of Romans 1:19-20, [it is understood] the extent to which what had been supernaturally
revealed could, in theory, be discovered — the extent to which the invisible things of God might
be clearly seen, understood by the things that are made” (Kretzmann 15). Therefore, reality itself,
as perceived by humanity and its finite nature, is structured by patterns, which only are present
and knowable through God’s discretion.
Being influenced directly by Aristotle and a rationalistic approach to philosophy, Aquinas
builds reason as the foundational dimension of God in his construction of reality. In this, reason
is seen as the primary method by which one could ascertain the truth of the universe because
“All things are considered in sacra doctrina under the concept of God, either because they are
God, or because they have an ordered relationship to God as their source and goal. It follows
from this that the subject of this science is really God” (Kretzmann 11). He refers to his theology
as a science or a rational investigation, highlighting the emphasis on reason as a mechanism with
which temporalities can understand God.

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Aquinas establishes potentiality and actuality, two possible states of being that describe
an individual and the nature of their relationship with God. According to the fixed patterns of the
universe, humans are endowed at creation with the inherent possibility to seek relations with
God. Since the capabilities of rational were also granted to humans through creation, Aquinas
affirms that it is in accordance with human nature itself to use reason in order to know God fully.
By nature of seeking the truth, this is a movement on a linear model from the recognition of the
potential of a human being to the realization and application of reason in practice. More broadly,
it is a “move from an apprehension of singulars through experience to a knowledge of the
universal nature of those singulars” (Hibbs 59). It is the attainment of the truths of the universe
itself as it relates and unites all the specificities that exist within it.
Paradoxically, If God is He that constructs the order of time and space itself and He who
is present in everything and nothing simultaneously, the knowledge of the universal nature of all
particularities is, in essence, God. Then, the move from potentiality to actuality is actually a
movement towards a comprehension of the divine nature of God as He exists outside of reality,
which was made accessible by God Himself. It is then an amalgamation of the human experience
of reason that one can maintain a relationship with God and know Him.
In alignment with this conception of potentiality and actuality, is the notion of natural and
supernatural perfection. Aquinas asserts, by merit of possessing reason, that humans have an end
with which seek for the purpose of life. This purpose, he believes, is unity with God as achieved
through the unity of natural perfection, which is possible within reality, and supernatural
perfection, which is perfection as it exists outside time and space. Aquinas emphasizes that this
supernatural perfection is not possible within reality, despite it being the condition of the coming

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into the fullness of the human existence. Similarly, supernatural perfection is only accessible by
the grace of God, who essentially transforms human nature to be able to engage in the divine.
Natural perfection, however, is attainable in that the state of potentiality establishes that “all
things are good insofar as they exist...The ultimate source of their goodness, is of course, God,
but this does not erase the goodness they possess as beings in their own right” (Hibbs 93). It is
then that virtue is the pursuit of this unity, which is built in part of the nature of humanity, while
sin is the choice of acting against nature and refusing the call to God.
Because Palamas did not conceive of himself as a philosopher, he does not have intensive
publications detailing his notion of metaphysics in his theology as Aquinas did. That does not
mean, however, that his metaphysics is non-existent. Because Palamas’ theological ideas were so
significant during his time and continue to be prevalent in contemporary Orthodox practice, the
strength of his theological epistemology on the nature of knowing God clearly has merit. Thus,
despite some claims that Palamas lacks a metaphysical foundation for his theological beliefs, one
must keep in mind that “sound spirituality can hardly be based on bad metaphysics which
misunderstands the fundamental relation between God and the World” (Perl 105). Therefore, to
understand the world in which he particularly frames it, one must extract and compose themes
from his various sermons and teachings.
While Aquinas places reason at the root of his metaphysical foundation, Palamas
thoroughly rejects the use of reason as a primary dimension of God. Instead, it is the heart and
soul that is rooted in the relationship between humanity and God. Palamas’s philosophy is
described as metaphysics of the heart in that “[it] represents the center of the human being, it is
the source of abilities, intellect and the will. It is the point from which spiritual life issues and to

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which all spiritual life returns...Such a goal presupposes a constant struggle to maintain the
heart’s purity, the defense of the heart” (Kroczak 71). It is zoe, living with the soul and spirit so
as to allow the Holy Spirit to enter through the nous, the soul, and acting as the recipient of God
entering through reality. It is a spirituality focused on the interiority and the quiet within the soul
so as to be aware and attuned to the presence of God in all things and all places within the
confines of time and space.
Palamas emphasizes the contemplative element in the practice of religion and in doing so,
through his theology, acts as medieval advocate for hesychasm, or the practice of inner spiritual
stillness. While hesychasm routines have existed prior to Palamas, it is most associated by
contemporaries with him. Palamas asserts that inner spirituality is accessible to all who exert will
in that “God’s fullness dwells in Christ, impossibly offered to all people beyond the boundaries
of our powers of perception, intellect, or knowledge” (Walthall). In addition to rejecting the
rationalistic nature of Aquinas’ theology, Palamas criticizes its scholastic nature, having been
rooted in the values of the Western European world, which values individualism and use of
reason to access the energy of God. It is through the silent contemplation of the nature of God,
not an exercise of reason and rational that one can begin to know Him.
The prevalence of hesychasm and ascetic practices is evident in the wide-spread embrace
of the Jesus Prayer in the Orthodox tradition. Similarly, as faith is an interior experience in the
midst of silence, “the Jesus Prayer is also referred to as the Prayer of the Heart…[because] the
heart is the primary human organ, the conjunction of the spirit and matter, which unites the
physical and psychological construction with the spiritual” (Kroczak 71). To pray the Jesus
Prayer is to pray ceaseless and invoke an appeal to the divine energy. The Jesus Prayer is not

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merely a recitation of words but rather, “a psychosomatic method of contemplation...intended to
involve the entire body in the act of a prayer” (Kroczak 73). In addition to a passionate rendition
of the prayer, body posture and breathing is integral in maintaining a connection with God. The
Jesus Prayer is meant to communicate continuous and unbroken communion with God as it
relates to His energies on earth.
It is not, however, prayer alone that can determine the nature of one’s relationship to God.
Palamas states that there is a “need [for] physical suffering if we are to apply ourselves to prayer.
Prayer without compunction has no quality” (Congote 32). In the ascetic practices of the
Orthodox faith, it is the discipline of the mortal passions that allow one to achieve unity with
God. As per beliefs in mysticism, this is performed even with the explicit knowledge that God
exists in a realm inaccessible to understanding. The goal is an achievement of apatheia, a state in
which will and spirituality triumphs over the human passions, which act as temptation towards
the patterns of sin. Despite the painful nature of the process, eventually, Palamas explains that it
will lead to the “achievement of virtue and the cleansing of our senses, our mind and our
hearts...transform the tears of mourning and of repentance into joy and elation of the heart”
(Athanasopoulos 33). It is from the reprieve of the poison of the passions that one is able to
perceive the blessed nature of the divine as it exists through energies within time and space.
Palamas exemplifies the sensibility of his theological teachings in the defense of
hesychasm and the ascetical life with the Palamite or Hesychastic controversy. Barlaam of
Seminara, a Western Catholic philosopher, accused Palamas of heresy with respect to his
teachings of the contemplative practice. A dialectic continued between the theologians, each
responding in writing in defense of their beliefs. In particular, Barlaam was appalled in the belief

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that, through hesychasm that one would even conceive of the knowability of God, “critciz[ing]
the devotional practice of the Hesychastic monks, which was supposed to lead to deification”
(Krozak 72-3).
In response, Palamas details the proofs of energies and essences of God, explaining how
God can simultaneously be knowable but unintelligible by merit of the limit of human
capabilities. Concerning the essence of God from the perspective of humans, “All language
about God is defective to one degree or another because God is outside the world of being and
‘every concept which strives from below towards the One who transcends all and is separated all
comes to a halt” (Anastos 336). Because of the eternal and all-powerful nature of God, an
individual is not able to comprehend the nature of God Himself — this is simply impossible from
a temporal context. That is to say, however, one is still able to understand the energy of God as
He exists within reality. God is a principle and being that organizes time and space, and while He
participates in it, He is not of it.
Palamas emphasizes the impartiality of God in existence in that “a person could attain
immediate knowledge of God and, for him, this was the goal and primary criterium of all
theology” (Kroczak 72). Else, what is religion for if not in establishing a relationship with the
creator? Since God is above-all and all-powerful, since humans exist in a realm confined by time
and space, humans are not able to perceive the essence of God as He exists in eternality, but one
could still be able to comprehend the energy of God as exuded in reality. If humans are endowed
with the ability to perceive God as He exists within time and space, should they not have the
opportunity to do so? Palamas regards it essentially a universal human right for individuals to
seek relations with God, in particular, with respect to the energies He exudes on earth. Once one

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is able to understand God through these contemplative practices, theosis or unity with God is
possible.
While the differences between the metaphysical foundations that two saints put forth
seems subtle, it has vastly different implications concerning the relationship between God and
humans and the process to which one can attain salvation.
Aquinas foundationalizes the primary method of conceptualizing God as that of reason.
Through reason, one can follow their human nature to attain natural perfection, then by the grace
of God, complete perfection that exists within reality with that of the supernatural. It is then that
one is able to know God by merit of the habituation of learning to align reason towards God, in
what is known as the virtues. Sin is a movement against human nature towards non-existence, or
the lack of God within reality. Since supernatural perfection completes natural perfection, and
God is the one who grants that, it would stand that it is God, who is aware of the realization of
natural perfection for an individual, makes a conscious decision to respond.
Palamas, in contrast, considers the soul to be the fundamental method to seek God. It is in
the practices of hesychasm and an inner, silent contemplation on the nature of God that one can
be able to know Him as remains on earth — this is the seeking of knowledge on the energy of
God. Palamas reminds that no matter the amount of contemplation, one will never be able to
comprehend the essence of God as he exists in eternality. In addition, in order to keep the
passions of the world restrained, one needs to practice in the rituals of asceticism in order to be
able to achieve unity with God in theosis.
Despite a disagreement on few philosophical ideas, one should not exaggerate the divide
between the Orthodox and Catholic churches. Both churches share key dogmas as the foundation

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of their respective religious practices. In Orthodoxy and Catholicism, the sacrament of the
Eucharist maintains itself as the primary focus of daily worship. When the bread becomes Christ
in the act of transubstantiation, while the churches differ on the exact moment of sanctification,
both congregations essentially understand that the bread is the body of Christ. Both churches
recognize Mary, the Mother of God, and her role in the life of Jesus Christ. In addition, Orthodox
Christians and Catholics believe in purgatory, practice the same sacraments, and recognize the
saints as a venerated group of holy people.
Similarly, while there exists some differences, Aquinas and Palamas share views
regarding select issues and there is no need to place them on opposite sides of a spectrum. More
contemporarily, both Aquinas and Palamas have been embraced by both Catholic and Orthodox
thinkers in an effort to unify the theologies. Today, they are viewed in a more complementary
nature. Aquinas and Palamas both seek to define their theology with respect to humans as being
motivated towards the goal of unity with God. Therefore, despite differences in metaphysical
constructions, for both thinkers, the driving motivation of theology in practice is the ability to
have a relationship with God and eventually, live in harmony with Him.

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