1. Keziah Rezaey
1 December 2019
Unity and Knowledge: Aquinas and the Final End for Humans
Many have questioned the purpose of human life. Thus, over the centuries, philosophers
have attributed the motivation of human action to their own delineations of the universe with
consideration to the existence of a divinity, or a lack thereof. In trying to establish his own
thorough proofs, Thomas Aquinas relates human nature to virtue and sin in the pursuit of an
ultimate end. Influenced by Aristotle, he defines a human end as goal-driven, emphasizing the
existence of a final end through an extensive metaphysical groundwork. Accordingly, Aquinas
asserts, by the faculty of being God’s reasoned creation, the final end is directed towards
happiness. However, this happiness must be specified to only be in affinity to God Himself and
no other temporal pursuits.
While Aquinas is stern on his notion of the ultimate good for humans, his dismissal of a
generalized pursuit of knowledge as the final end can be challenged. Aquinas acknowledges the
value of knowledge on the subject of God, however, denounces all others. While Aquinas
believed that pursuit of truth is unnecessary due to the role of faith in perfection, it does not
mean that knowledge entirely should be rejected. Because it is entirely possible that knowledge
of general principles (that do not explicitly relate to faith) can coexist with divine knowledge,
pursuit of it as the ultimate end actually aligns with his definition of happiness as relating to
unity with God.
As influenced by Aristotle’s teleological philosophy, Aquinas defines an end as that of a
goal that human beings strive for. In his construction of reality, these ends exist as the primary
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conception of how daily occurrences are even possible. Every action is directed towards some
purpose. Because humans are creatures of reason, it is natural to “move themselves toward an
end; because they have dominion over their actions through free will, which is a faculty of
reason and will” (Summa Theologica 352). Through a recognition of the capability to reason, it is
natural that an individual should try to fulfill their function as a human who exists within time
and space and make sense of the purpose of their own actions.
Thus, it is observed that even without an explicit awareness, humans are able to define
themselves and their justification of being by their perception of their ultimate end of actions.
Through a subordination and elevation of select goals, reason allows one to decide how to
structure their hierarchy of ends. In addition to being hierarchical, these ends are also nested,
based on a consideration of both their instrumental and intrinsic value. It is these instrumental
goals that exist at the base of the hierarchy and act as stepping stones, allowing those who are
willing to achieve that end which is only done for its own sake alone. Aquinas emphasizes these
ultimate ends are not forsaken for others, but rather, the human will and reason work to
restructure and contemplate these ends, making the final end non-exclusive to those considered
lower. Since these goal-oriented actions dominate existence, the course of an individual’s life is
then determined by that which they conceive to be their personal good — their final end — and
how they structure these ends to reach that point.
On a foundational level, Aquinas’ metaphysics help establish how human beings steer
themselves onto a path towards a final end. Humans, by nature, live according to the fixed
patterns that order temporal existence itself. Aquinas describes actuality and potentiality,
different states of being that describe both the nature of one’s relationship to God and how one
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adheres to the essence of humanity. It is potentiality that exists inherently - humans will always
be born with the possibility to become. Meanwhile, actuality is that state of having realized,
essentially, potentiality practiced and in action. While some may not actively work towards an
achievement of this end, it may be that their notion of the final end is misconstrued, however, it
does not mean that it does not exist for them. Aquinas believes this is definite in that “anything
that is without its proper perfection is moved towards it, as far as in it lies; and if it has that
perfection, it rests therein” (Summa Contra Gentiles 101). Both potentiality and actuality exist on
a linear continuum, seamlessly engaging in the movement between virtue and sin, which can be
described respectively as a shift between the fullness of the human experience or a denial of the
natural movement towards God.
Similarly, according to Aquinas’ construction of reality, humans are limited by their finite
existence, lacking in the ability to perceive that which is infinite. Just as God is entirely
imperceivable from a temporal perspective, a human cannot conceive of a hierarchy of ends that
is entirely infinite in nature. Aquinas emphasizes “it is not possible to proceed indefinitely in the
matter of ends from any point of view” and that “in the action of every agent, a point can be
reached beyond which the agent does not desire to go; or else actions would tend to infinity,
which is impossible” (Summa Theologica 354, Summa Contra Gentiles 101). In addition, a life
without an end raises an existentialist dilemma for Aquinas. How ought a life to be lived if not
for something to define the purpose of our actions? Without a definition to live for, one can only
succumb to that which is an arbitrary existence. Thus, not only are humans inherently built to
pursue, through reason, an end with which to define life, but an end must be final and achievable
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within time and space because of the lacking capabilities of finite beings to perceive
externalities.
With humans inherently created to subscribe to a final end of life, Aquinas then asserts
that it is in pursuit of happiness that all beings capable of reason hold as the final end. For
Aquinas, happiness is universally defined as “The knowledge of God [that] has been declared to
be the end inasmuch as it unites us to the last end of all, namely, God” (Summa Contra Gentiles
106). Embedded within the reasoning capabilities of humans is the notion that the final end is
unity with God. Unity with God is achieved when one moves beyond a state of natural
perfection, the conception of a perfection possible within time and space, into supernatural
perfection. Supernatural perfection appeals to capabilities beyond human will, nonetheless, it is
the coming into the fullness and existence of an individual human life. Because humans were
created by an infinite being, natural perfection alone is not enough. Despite not being possible
within the mortal lifetime, a grasp of supernatural perfection allows one to reach the full
actualization of human life. It is an evolution from a mere recognition of the potential that
humans possess to that of an actual achievement by intervention from God. Natural perfection
serves as a foundation for one to begin to pursue the perfections of the beyond, which is entirely
necessary so as to complete the insufficient disposition with which this natural perfection fosters.
Therefore, it is then the unity of the perfections that allow for an individual to become one with
God.
Aquinas believes that the movement towards God as the highest good is a natural
conclusion. Because humans are born with the potential to be naturally perfect, even if they are
motivated by their own misinterpreted variations of happiness, individuals will still tend to aim
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for this perfection. Aquinas asserts “Not the object of the will, i.e, of man’s appetite, is the
universal good...Hence it is evident that naught can lull man’s will, save the universal good. This
is to be found, not in any creature, but in God alone” (Summa Theologica 375). This desire
towards perfection (which by definition of Aquinas’ metaphysics, is God) can be both a natural
and supernatural call. The problem, however, lies in how people work to defy this natural
movement either by misdefinition or ignorance.
In the various (and incorrect) ways of defining the ultimate end, Aquinas believes that
wealth, honor, fame, glory, power, pleasure, or the soul itself cannot possibly be the end of all
ends. If one happens to pursue any with the intent of making it their final end, it is a direct
violation of the reason that is embedded into human nature. The seeking of these is irrational in
all sense, in that they are not intrinsic, simply fleeting, encourage the problem of infinite want
and are often means rather than ends. In all of these, pleasure can be extracted from the
attainment, however, pleasure cannot always be equated to happiness, especially when one
considers the distinguishment between base and higher pleasures. If humans were created with
the ability to achieve a unity of the perfections, then “The highest perfection of man cannot
consist in his being united to things lower than himself, but consists in his being united to
something above him; for the end is better than that which tends to the end” (Summa Contra
Gentiles 103). Therefore, devotion to an unworthy cause is sin in action, especially when
considering the capabilities with which humans are endowed. A commitment to values that
encourage the straying from God is an embrace of the path of non-existence and nothingness.
Aquinas is absolute in his derivation of his definition of happiness with respect to the
ultimate end of human life — all humans have the same final end which is unity with God. Thus,
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with his discussion of the alternative propositions of happiness within time and space, he soundly
rejects them all. Most notably, he fails to consider an important contender: temporal knowledge
as relating to that of the final end. Knowledge on the reality with which humans occupy, is more
interconnected than Aquinas initially presents. It addresses the concept of the unity of the
perfections and the principles of potentiality and actuality.
While Aquinas claims that it is absolute unity with God that humans are aimed towards,
he rejects the pursuit of knowledge with respect to the general principles of the universe.
Aquinas thinks it unnecessary in that “the consideration of a speculative science does not extend
beyond the scope of the principles of that science: since the entire science is virtually contained
in its principles…[it] cannot extend further than knowledge of sensibles can lead” (Summa
Theologica 381). He continues by stating that it is only the beginning of human inquiry and that
“ultimate happiness consists in wisdom, based on the consideration of divine things” (Summa
Contra Gentiles 105).
Under the presumption that God exists and humans reside within the limits of time and
space, then the knowledge that will be sought aims to learn about the nature of the universe. This
is in accordance to natural perfection as it pertains to perfection within the confines of the human
limitation. Since it is knowledge that is within time and space, it is a pursuit of the attainment of
truth as it explicitly relates to time and space itself. By the structure of creation that Aquinas puts
forth, since God and His energies are present within time and space (i.e. birth and death of
Jesus), this implies that this knowledge is ascertaining truth with respect to God and His nature
as He exists within reality itself. In addition, just as Aquinas states that humans are finite, which
places a limit on the chain of ends that one can have, because this is knowledge only within time
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and space, there is no problem of an infinite searching for truth. Humans are as limited in this
sense to whatever knowledge they can obtain within what they themselves can perceive.
Accordingly, this knowledge will act similar to natural perfection in that it will provide
foundation for the divine perfection that is divine knowledge, or what Aquinas calls wisdom.
Without natural perfection, one cannot have the unity of the perfections to achieve happiness.
Similarly, because knowledge within reality verifies temporalities, which is God’s patterns in
action, without this knowledge as a foundation, how can one even begin to contemplate the
divine truth? Since wisdom is the application of knowledge, one must first possess some
semblance of the truth in order to practice it in action. Truth is not revelation alone, nor is it
simply speculation. It is then that knowledge on an earthly and divine level is necessary to obtain
unity with God since it seeks to know God Himself as he exists eternally and finitely.
In the case that God does not exist, the pursuit of knowledge allows humans to possibly
extract meaning from the existentialist dilemma that arises from having no meaning in life. Just
because one believes their actions are arbitrary does not mean that they should not still ponder
the world and its construction. In essence, one can try to answer: Why is life meaningless? Why
is there a lack of order in the universe? In addition, even if actions are arbitrary, it does not mean
they do not have consequences on other people and the entirety of reality itself. While actions
may not have meaning, they still have effects. Thus, even in a realm where God may not exist,
knowledge can still help one configure reality so as to understand the ethical ramifications that
arise in a society where actions are inconsequential.
Aquinas creates an intricate and detailed outline on the nature of perfection, potentiality
and actuality as it relates to the teleology of human life and a relation to God. With virtue and sin
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as the movement toward and away from God, human nature is crafted by reason so as to turn
towards natural perfection. While Aquinas believes that unity with God is the only final end, by
reason of an alignment with his metaphysics, knowledge holds merit as well. Both serve to
achieve union with God.
