Medicine and Medical Technology in Biblical Perspective· As di.docx

Medicine and Medical Technology in Biblical Perspective
·
As discussed in Chapter 1, in the Christian worldview, the
ultimate foundation for determining the right, the good, and the
just is the triune God. The triune God is the ultimate foundation
of reality, including ethics. Moral goodness and justice are
derived from the very character of God. God is holy and set
apart (Leviticus 20:26, English Standard Version), so people are
to live lives of holiness and goodness. God is love (1 John
4:10–11), and so love is a virtue and an essential principle for
life and relationships. Because God is just toward people
(Deuteronomy 15:15), they are to act justly towards the poor,
the sick, and the disenfranchised. People are to live in covenant
faithfulness to their spouses and to honor covenantal
relationships in their professions (e.g., the doctor-patient and
nurse-patient relationship) because God is a covenant God,
faithful to his people, even when they were unfaithful (Hosea 1–
3; Malachi 2:10,14).
As discussed previously, all ethics flow from one’s worldview
and its basic assumptions about ultimate reality. One’s view of
human nature, the fundamental problem of humanity, the
solution to that problem, and the ultimate direction and goal of
history will determine personal ethics. Every worldview
embodies these elements in some sense, and the substance of
these elemental conceptions influences everyone’s moral vision.
These assumptions deeply influence what one believes to be the
right, the good, and the just, and they will direct, whether
consciously or subconsciously, one’s individual daily choices
and actions.
The Christian worldview, which is the focus of this text, is
founded on the biblical narrative or story. This narrative is
often summarized as the story of the creation, fall, redemption,
and restoration of human beings, along with the entire created
order (see Figure 3.1). This section will examine how key

concepts within this narrative, such as sin, righteousness,
and Shalom, provide a framework by which the Christian
worldview understands the concepts of health and disease and
life and death, as well as provides guiding norms for how one
should approach healing and care-giving, the ethical use of
medicine and new medical technologies, and justice in health
care.
Figure 3.1
Biblical Narrative and Christian Worldview
Creation
The Christian narrative of creation is essential for both
Christian theology and for Christian ethics. At the foundation of
the biblical narrative is the Christian God who is the creator of
everything that exists (Genesis 1–2). The most important
aspects of the biblical view of creation are the following:
1. Nothing exists that does not have God as its creator
(Colossians 1:16; Revelation 4:11).
2. There is a clear distinction between God and his creation
(God transcends creation). At the same time God continues to
be involved in every aspect of creation, providentially directing
and guiding all things that come to pass for his purpose and
design (God is immanent within his creation).
3. God is neither dependent on creation nor is creation
necessary to God.
4. God’s act of creation was intentional; everything exists for a
purpose, not accidentally or randomly.
Implications of the Biblical Narrative of Creation for Health
Care Ethics
·
Several aspects of the biblical view of creation give substance
and direction to ethical issues. First, the biblical narrative of
creation is the account of a good God who creates a good world
(Genesis 1:21) with human beings at the apex of his creation.
When God described both his act of creating and the creation
itself as good, it meant that it was valuable, and everything in

its original state was the way it was supposed to be. The
goodness that remains in the world even after the fall reminds
one that God has called humans to live in his world, not to
abandon or reject it. There is a harmony and orderliness to
creation and the physical world, the human body, and the
institutions of culture and society, and these are good gifts of
the creator God.
Second, man and woman are created in the image of God, a
concept that was discussed in Chapter 2. As stated in that
chapter, various ideas for what the image of God in humans
actually is have been proposed by theologians and philosophers
throughout history. Nonetheless, there are clear relational and
dynamic aspects entailed in the image of God that give rise to
implications that are generally affirmed across Bible-believing
churches and organizations. These implications are important
for a Christian view of ethics.
Being created in the image of God implies that humans are set
apart from the rest of the created order and provides a
foundation for the intrinsic dignity and value of all human
beings. All human beings, without exception, have an intrinsic
dignity and value that is to be protected in every stage of life.
Whether in health or sickness, with mental or physical
disability, from its formation in the womb through the
sometimes-debilitating effects of old age, humans have intrinsic
value. The Benedictine monk Illtyd Trethowan (1970) expresses
this beautifully:
To love people because they are creatures of God, “reflections”
of God, is the only way to love them as they really are. To say
that they are God’s creatures is not just to mention an
interesting fact about them. It is the essential truth about them.
They have value indeed in themselves, but only because God
gave it to them. Unless we see God in them as the source of
value, we should not really see that they had it. (p. 84)
It is also the foundation for distinguishing human beings from
other species or kinds. Only human beings are created in God’s
image That the dignity is intrinsic means that moral dignity is

not dependent on any capacity or specific characteristic or
attribute that a human being possesses—there is no distinction,
for instance, between being a human being and being a person.
To be sure, human beings can be distinguished from other
animals based on certain capacities, characteristics, or
attributes, but this is not the foundation for their being in God’s
image. This means that all human beings have equal moral
worth. Dignity and moral worth are conferred on all human
beings by God who has created them to be in relationship with
him, to reflect him, and to represent himself in the care of his
creation. This applies from a person’s physical beginning, to
their physical death, and beyond.
To say that all human beings have intrinsic moral worth and
dignity is to say that it is morally wrong to use one person for
the mere benefit of another. One cannot say that one kind of
human being, or a certain human being that lacks certain
attributes or capacities, is of less moral worth than another. It is
morally wrong to use another human being (or a class of human
beings) as an end to someone else's purpose. That is why
Christian ethics views certain biomedical and medical practices,
such as embryonic stem cell research, as immoral because it is
using another human being (even a human being that is still an
embryo) as a means to another end, even if that end is providing
medical advances that may help many others—emphasis on
may.
To justify any act merely because it results in overall good on
balance is a theory that is foreign to Christian ethics (i.e.,
utilitarianism). To accept this way of moral reasoning, one
would have to say that things like experimenting on people
without their consent is morally acceptable because those
experiments will bring greater good to more people. This
thinking has been used to justify many of the atrocities
committed in this and the past century in the name of producing
“good” things for many people (e.g., the Tuskegee syphilis
study).
Third, the biblical narrative of creation provides a foundation

for the care of God’s creation. Just as God in his providence
cares for all creation, so humankind is given a cultural mandate
to represent him in the care of his creation. As created image
bearers of their Creator, humankind is to reflect God’s
character, do his will, and rule on earth on his behalf as
stewards and vice-regents. The discovery of God’s creation
through the use of God-given intellect and curiosity is part of
that cultural mandate. Medical science is part of the discovery
of that created order. Human rule over God’s creation, however,
is never absolute, but moderated service. It is always subsumed
under the higher rule of God and for his glory alone.
Humankind’s relationship to creation is one of covenant-
stewardship, not co-creator. It is a stewardship that must be
used for God’s purpose, not humankind. Part of that cultural
mandate is reflected in the proper use of medical science.
Finally, the biblical narrative of creation affirms that there is an
order to creation, that everything was how it was supposed to be
and how everything ought to be. This state of order and peace
can be described by the term Shalom. Yale theologian Nicholas
Wolterstorff (1994) describes Shalom as “the human being
dwelling at peace in all his or her relationships: With God, with
self, with fellows, with nature” (p. 251). Cornelius Plantinga
(1995) describes Shalom as,
universal flourishing, wholeness, and delight—a rich state of
affairs in which natural needs are satisfied and natural gifts
fruitfully employed, a state of affairs that inspires joyful
wonder as its Creator and Savior opens doors and welcomes the
creatures in whom he delights. (p. 10)
Moreover, there is a creative normative design that provides a
Christian vision of health and flourishing. The concept of
Shalom offers a glimpse into the multidimensional view of
biblical understanding of health and how healthy persons should
function. Health is not merely about physical or biological
functioning, but also encompasses the spiritual and communal
dimensions of what it means to be a human being created in the
image of God. Walter Brueggemann (2001) highlights this

multidimensional view of health as Shalom:
Health refers to stability enough to share in the costs and joys,
the blessings and burdens of the community. To be healthy
means to be functioning full in terms of the norms, values, and
expectations of the community. Healing refers to the restoration
and rehabilitation of persons to their full power and vitality in
the life of the community. Sickness, then, does not refer
primarily to physical pain as much as to the inability to be
fully, honorably, and seriously engaged in the community in all
its decisions and celebrations. (p. 199)
Communal and relational aspects of health are just as important
as the physical and psychological.
The spiritual dimension of all human beings cannot be
disassociated from the physical dimension, as if it were a
separate part of the person. Human beings are not only a
physical body (i.e., atoms in motion, a concept referred to
as monism or physical reductionism), instead they are
multidimensional beings that are a unity of a body and soul. The
biblical account of creation describes Adam—and all
subsequent human beings—with the Hebrew term nephesh,
which means either “ensouled bodies” or “embodied souls.”
This has important ramifications for health and healing
according to the biblical narrative of creation. Health and
disease involve all dimensions of the person at once, the body
and the soul. Furthermore, the biblical narrative describes
human beings as relational, embodied spiritual beings.
As will be discussed in the next section, sin and the fall affect
all aspects of a human being: the body, soul, and its relationship
to others and the world. This is the biblical foundation for
the biopsychosocial-spiritual model of health and healing,
whereby wellness is concerned with and defined by not only the
physical, but also the emotional, spiritual, and social wellness
of human beings (Sulmasy, 2002).
The Fall
·
According to the Bible, the fall has universal and cosmic

implications. Just as illness in the body can be viewed as a
break in the homeostasis of the body’s physiology, the fall and
subsequent separation from God broke the homeostasis of
creation itself, bringing disease, sickness, suffering, and death.
These are all effects of the fall and not part of God’s original
design. This deviation from the normative design of the original
creation affects the mind, body and spirit of each human being.
The death that sin brings to the world is not merely physical
death, but spiritual death, which is eternal separation from
God.
Humanity’s predicament, a predicament of humankind’s own
making, is not merely physical, but spiritual as well, and both
are intertwined and enmeshed because of humankind’s
deliberate, spiritual rebellion and estrangement from God.
Restoration and healing cannot be perceived as merely the
return to physical health or psychological well-being, but
requires spiritual and communal restoration. Ultimately, it
requires a renewed relationship with God—a renewal that can
only come by God’s own initiative.
Implications of the Biblical Narrative of the Fall for Health
Care Ethics
The biblical narrative of the fall has several implications for a
Christian view of medical ethics. First, though God’s good
creation still exists, humans can distort these good gifts and use
them in ways the Creator never intended. Science and
technology are not unmitigated blessings. The uses of science
and technology are always impacted by the fall and, like all of
life, need redemption. This does not mean that Christians are
anti-science or anti-technology, but that they should be
discerning about the application of certain technologies that
may seek to usurp God’s wisdom for his creation.
Understanding the current technological culture from a biblical
perspective helps to determine how one should react to many of
the recent developments in bioscience.
To be “as God,” as the serpent put it to tempt Eve in the
Genesis narrative, is to embrace the false expectation that

something else is required other than God’s image for human
fulfillment, and that something else is fully achievable by man
apart from God. For many, modern biotechnology has become a
false hope that will one day lead to that fulfillment and the ideal
human condition. Christians are not called away from modern
biotechnology, especially that which holds out promises to
relieve the suffering and pain of fellow human beings in this
fallen world. But its use must always be constrained by God’s
wisdom and direction, a gift of his good creation, and the
realization that physical illness and disease is only one
dimension of humankind’s total predicament, which is
fundamentally a spiritual rebellion and separation from God
(Hoehner, 2008).
The fall is also a warning about utopian perceptions of the
world and humankind’s efforts to change the way things are.
Self-deception and sin occur side-by-side in the story of the fall
(Genesis 3:12–13). In the same way, utopian attempts to achieve
justice, goodness, and perfect health—even beyond perfect in
terms of enhancement of the perfect—have resulted in tragic
injustices and evil precisely because of self-deception and sin
resulting from the fall. A Christian ethic grounded in the
biblical narrative will always hold together these two
dimensions of human nature:
1. Wonderfully made in God’s image with the potential for great
works of mercy and kindness toward one another, and
2. Terribly fallen in rebellion against the wisdom and design of
their Creator with the capacity for the greatest of evils.
Redemption
Because the fall not only has personal consequences, but
universal and cosmic consequences, redemption has universal
and cosmic consequences as well. The brokenness and
estrangement that resulted from the fall is being restored. The
restoration of Shalom, or peace, is a central theme in the New
Testament explanation of the ramifications of redemption. It is
precisely through justification, being made right again with God
and his holiness through Christ, that Shalom is reestablished

between believers and God. The Shalom between believers and
God is the foundation for restoring Shalom in creation. The
New Testament affirms that “all things, whether on earth or in
heaven” are brought back into Shalom through Christ’s atoning
death on the cross (Colossians 1:20), and “that the creation
itself will be set free from its bondage to corruption and obtain
the freedom of the glory of the children of God” (Romans
8:21).
Just as the concept of Shalom in the Old Testament has
implications for salvation (Isaiah 43:7; Jeremiah 29:11), for
bodily health (Isaiah 57:18; Psalm 38:3), and for communal
well-being and blessing (Numbers 6:24ff), and the New
Testament “gospel of peace” (Ephesians 6:25) also brings
renewal to the whole of human and creational relationships. It is
the beginning of the restoration of all that was lost in the fall.
According to J. I. Durham (as cited in Beck and Brown, 1976),
the peace spoken of in the New Testament is “a comprehensive
fulfillment or completion, a perfection of life and spirit which
transcends any success which man alone, even under the best of
circumstances, is able to attain” (p. 778).
Implications of the Biblical Narrative of Redemption for Health
Care Ethics
The restoration of Shalom that is the consequence of Jesus’s
life, death, and resurrection has several implications for
Christian ethics and the Christian view of disease, healing, and
death. First, it provides the motive for Christian ethics.
Christian ethics is primarily an ethics of love. It is one of
gratitude and response to what God has already done. And while
Jesus’ work of salvation does not depend on man’s efforts or
goodness, it does not leave a Christian’s life unaffected. God
also works to renew an individual’s heart, mind, and actions;
therefore, Christians should be more just, loving, merciful, and
faithful because of the work of God within them. Christian
ethics is not merely individualistic, instead it spills over into
social realities as well. Christians should be empowered to work
for justice and peace in all aspects of the world and society,

including issues of poverty, social injustices, racial
reconciliation, and environmental concerns.
In addition to its spiritual aspects, redemption also has physical
dimensions. Jesus came to redeem the whole person as a
complete biopsychosocial-spiritual being; therefore, there is a
strong relationship between health and salvation in the New
Testament. Jesus, as the ultimate healer, is called soter, a Greek
term that can mean both “savior” and “healer.” When Jesus
heals a paralyzed man, those watching were surprised to hear
Jesus first say, “your sins are forgiven” (Mark 2:5). There is
both a spiritual healing and a physical healing. Most of Jesus’
miracles during his life had to do with physical healing. In his
healing miracles, Jesus’ life witnessed to a beginning of the
reversal of the effects of the fall.
Two caveats are in order when evaluating the healing miracles
in the New Testament. First, one must understand the purpose of
Jesus’s miracles. The miracles of Jesus and the Apostles in the
New Testament serve two primary purposes. On the one hand,
they are powerful testimonies to the truth of Jesus’ message of
the gospel. They were signs of not only his divine nature, but
also of his divine authority. On the other hand, they were
foretastes of the ultimate physical salvation that would come to
all believers, but only at the final resurrection. One could say it
was a breaking in and demonstration of the final restoration that
will come after death. At that time the bodies of Christian
believers will be resurrected and renewed in eternal and perfect
health and in eternal fellowship with God.
Christians affirm that God has power over illness and death and
can, as he chooses, provide miraculous healing and recovery.
But these miracles, which God uses for his own purposes, are
not something that can be expected as a test of faith or as a
direct result of prayer, as if God can be manipulated. Prayer can
never be used like a secret incantation or spiritual therapeutic
regimen. Faith and the gifts of God in creation, including
medicine, biotechnologies, and the skill and judgment of
physicians and nurses, are not opposed or set against one

another. Faith is not opposed to reason. Nothing in the
traditional, historic Christian worldview gives such priority to
faith healing to the extent that it ignores good medical care.
This form of faith healing is not part of the traditional Christian
worldview, although it appears in many sects of Christianity.
A second caveat is to recognize the relationship between sin,
illness, and healing. According to the biblical narrative, there is
a connection between sin and the physical brokenness in this
world, a brokenness that includes disease and suffering. All
illness and suffering are a consequence of the fall in a general
sense. This does not mean one can reason from specific sins to
specific illnesses or diseases; however, there are the exceptions
of physical sins that lead to their consequences, such as
substance and physical abuse. When a man born blind was
brought to Jesus, religious leaders asked Jesus whose sin was
responsible for the man’s blindness. Was it his own or his
parents? Jesus, before going on to heal the man’s blindness,
gave a surprising answer. “It was not that this man sinned, or
his parents, but that the works of God might be displayed in
him” (John 9:3). There are two lessons in this story. First, one
cannot directly link specific spiritual sins to specific physical
illnesses. While in general, all spiritual brokenness results in
physical brokenness, one should not equate the guilt of any sin
with illness as a specific punishment. Second, Jesus shows that
God does use even the brokenness of a fallen world for his own
good purposes. Through Jesus’s own suffering, suffering is
given a higher meaning and purpose that witnesses to the
spiritual redemption that Jesus brings. God can transform
suffering, illness, and even death for much grander purposes in
this world. Christian believers have an assured hope of a full
and complete healing in all their biopsychosocial-spiritual
dimensions when Christ returns.
·
As followers of their savior, Christian health care professionals
are to be imitators of Jesus in his compassion and healing
ministry. In gratitude and loving response to what the great

physician and healer has done for the world, they are to reflect
his love toward others as well. Christian health care workers
recognize and use the gifts God has given in this world to
mitigate the effects of the fall with loving compassion and
mercy as they seek to relieve the pain and suffering of their
fellow human beings. As God showed his love and mercy to the
whole world through Jesus, so too should Christian health care
workers bring that same love and mercy to all persons.
As discussed previously, all human beings are made in the
image of God and have intrinsic worth and value deserving of
care and compassion. Loving and caring for others shows God’s
love, an unearned love that God has already shown the world.
One’s love for God is also demonstrated in the love one has for
one’s neighbor. Just as God’s love is free and gracious, so
should a Christian’s love reflect this in selfless service to their
neighbor. It is especially to the poor, the vulnerable, the sick,
and the “least of these” (Matthew 25:40) that the Christian’s
love should be directed.
Health care professionals are frequently called on to take care
of very sick, broken, and sometimes undesirable patients. Some
patients will not be kind and will be very difficult to care for.
But Jesus calls his redeemed to care for and love all “the least
of these” (Matthew 25:40) as if they were caring for and loving
him because they are. Often this will not be the least bit
rewarding from a personal perspective, but Jesus tells his
followers that a greater reward awaits them in heaven.
Restoration
While sin, death, and suffering have all been completely and
forever conquered by the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus,
the full effect of that redemption awaits a fuller completion in
the eschaton, Jesus’s second coming at the end of the age. The
goal of the biblical narrative is a new creation—a renewed
world that far exceeds the limitations and finitude of the
original creation. Revelation, the final book of the Bible, speaks
of the “new Jerusalem” and the “new earth” (Revelation 3:12;
21:1) that is being prepared for all of God’s redeemed people

who will be resurrected to a new and more glorious life of
eternal and perfect Shalom.
Implications of the Biblical Narrative of Restoration for Health
Care Ethics
It is all too evident that this present age continues to suffer the
effects of the fall. Suffering, pain, death, and injustices are ever
present realities in the world. There is an already and not yet
aspect to redemption. In one sense, it is complete (i.e., already)
in that believers are fully forgiven, redeemed, and possess
eternal life. In another sense, believers await a final perfection
(i.e., not yet). All believers suffer the continuing effects of the
fall, such as further temptation and sin, disease, and even
physical death. It is like a sick patient who has been fully
treated for a disease, assured of a complete cure, but must still
convalesce from the lingering effects of the illness, awaiting a
fuller return to health and wholeness. There is both joy and
assurance, but there are continued struggles as well. The world
itself is redeemed, but it still struggles with the lingering results
of the fall, awaiting the new creation. Understanding this
Christian telos, or where history is ultimately headed, has a
powerful impact on ethics and a Christian view of health,
illness, healing, and death.
For the health care worker, this already and not yet aspect of
redemption gives an eternal as well as present perspective to the
relief of suffering and illness to which they have been called.
For instance, death is no longer the ultimate enemy, having
been conquered through Jesus’s own death and resurrection.
Believers await the resurrection of their bodies and a glorious
eternity of embodied life and fellowship with God. But in the
meantime, physical death and suffering remain a reality. A
biblical narrative of restoration informs the Christian health
care professional that while medical science is a great good, it
is limited and imperfect. The way medical science pushes back
against the reality of aging and death must at some point accept
its reality and the finitude of all human beings.
The biblical narrative is very realistic about the sufferings and

tragedies in the world. Death is something to grieve. It is not
the way it is supposed to be. It is no small test of faith to hold a
dying infant or to watch loved ones suffer at the end of their
lives. The shortest verse of the Bible, “Jesus wept” (John
11:35), says that even though he knew he would bring him back
to life, Jesus grieved over Lazarus’s death because of his great
love for him. One can almost hear Jesus crying out of his love
and sorrow, “This is not how it was supposed to be!” The
biblical narrative affirms that there is something greater that
awaits the believer that provides hope and comfort amidst the
very real and tragic suffering and pain of this world. The
Apostle Paul, who suffered more during his lifetime than many
ever will, was still compelled to say, “For I consider that the
sufferings of this present time are not worth comparing with the
glory that is to be revealed to us” (Romans 8:18).
·
Christian health care providers are called in this present time to
do all they can to mitigate and push back against the effects of
the fall, bringing relief from pain and suffering, loving all
persons as image bearers of God and beings of intrinsic eternal
worth and value. Sin, suffering, and illness are part of the
brokenness of the world that was caused by humankind’s sin.
The consequences of sin are not only personal, but also
universal and cosmic. Even Christians suffer in this lifetime
because of the effects of the fall and sin. While their eternal
salvation is already secure and brings a spiritual peace with
God, they still must await the final resurrection to bring full
physical peace as well. Christian health care professionals,
informed by and living in this biblical narrative and worldview,
can show the mercy and peace of God to their patients as a
foretaste of that future restoration here and now, even while
awaiting and anticipating its ultimate fulfillment at Jesus’s
return.

Write a Research Question, Thesis, and Outline
Following the Topic Selection Guidelines below, choose an
argumentative topic to research. This will be your topic
throughout the entire course, so the activities required for this
assignment will provide the foundation for your future
submissions. The topic for an argumentative research paper
must be a debatable topic, meaning that it involves conflicting
viewpoints. Additionally, it cannot be a topic that is already
decided or agreed upon by most of society. You will need to
take a firm position on the topic and use evidence and logic to
support the position. This assignment includes a research
question, a working thesis, a detailed outline, and a reflection
on this pre-writing process.
You may choose any topic you wish as long as the topic has two
clear sides and is not agreed upon by most of society. Your
topic should be current, appropriate for an academic context and
should have a focus suitable for a 6-8 page essay.
Below your assignment, include answers to all of the following
reflection questions.
1. Consider the process of researching as a whole. What was the
most challenging aspect of the process for you? (2-3 sentences)
2. Analyze the effectiveness of your working thesis statement.
(3-4 sentences)
3. Review your detailed outline and summarize the argument
you've presented. (3-4 sentences)
4. You will use the same topic on three of the remaining
Assignments in this course. What kind of feedback would be
helpful for you? What are specific questions you might have as
you go deeper into the research process? (2-3 sentences)
Guidelines
Refer to the list below throughout the writing process. Do not
submit your Touchstone until it meets these guidelines.
1. Research Question and Working Thesis
Keep in mind: The research question and working thesis are the
driving force behind your research and eventual argument.

❒ Your research question should be a single sentence, framed as
a question.
❒ Your working thesis should be a single focused sentence,
framed as a statement that takes a clear position on the research
question.
❒ Include your research question followed by your working
thesis.
2. Detailed Outline
Keep in mind: Your detailed outline provides a map of the
argumentative research essay that you will write, including your
key claims and the sources that support them. You may not have
all your sources yet, and that is fine. The outline is a way to
organize your essay and determine which areas (e.g. your sub-
points) will require researched evidence as support.
❒ Headings: one for each paragraph with a brief label of the
paragraph’s controlling idea(s); at least 7 body paragraphs, an
introduction, and a conclusion
❒ Introduction includes your working thesis.
❒ Body paragraphs should each have their own unique title and
key points.
❒ Conclusion includes notes on your final thoughts.
❒ Subheadings: two to five for each paragraph, below each
heading, indicating key points that support the controlling idea
❒ Sources: one to three for each subheading, as relevant,
indicating the support for the key point
❒ For each source, include the author’s name and the idea or
information relevant to your argument (e.g. “Lappé on mono-
cropping corn/soy and production”).
3. Reflection
❒ Have you displayed a clear understanding of the research
activities?
❒ Have you answered all reflection questions thoughtfully and
included insights, observations, and/or examples in all
responses?

❒ Are your answers included on a separate page below the main
assignment?

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