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1. A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CONTEMPORARY PRACTICE IN
BUSINESS EDUCATION IN VETERINARY MEDICINE
FINAL REPORT
November 2011
Professor Colette Henry
Centre for Veterinary Enterprise
Royal Veterinary College, University of London

2. 2
CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements 3
1. Introduction - Objectives and Rationale 4
2. Methodology 5
3. Contemporary Practice in Veterinary Business Education 6
3.1 In the UK 6
3.2 Internationally 9
3.3 Some good practice examples 11
4. Challenges Encountered and Issues Raised 12
4.1 Challenges 12
4.2 Issues Raised 13
- By the educators 13
- By the students 14
- By the employers 16
5. Conclusions & Recommendations 18
References 20
Appendices: 22
- I. Summary literature review
- II. Educators’ Questionnaire
- III. Students’ Questionnaire
- IV. Employers’ Questionnaire

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Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledges the support of the Higher Education Academy –
Business, Management, Accounting and Finance Network (HEA-BMAF) in funding the
research presented in this report.
The assistance provided by the following researchers at the Royal Veterinary College
(RVC) is also gratefully acknowledged:
- Ms Lorna Treanor
- Mr Christopher Trace
- Ms Katie Adam
Finally, the author is extremely grateful to the veterinary educators, students and
employers who willingly gave up their time to participate in this research.

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1. Introduction - Objectives and Rationale
This report presents the findings of a critical review of contemporary practice in business
education within UK veterinary schools. The objectives of the review were: to explore
what is currently being taught in the context of veterinary business, particularly in relation
to entrepreneurship; to consider how this can contribute to graduates’ employable skills
and to reflect on how such skills can be validated. A further objective of the review was
to identify some specific examples of contemporary practice and to highlight amongst
these some potential good practice examples of contemporary veterinary business and
entrepreneurship teaching. Some insights into veterinary business education
internationally are also provided.
Rationale
There are a number of reasons why it was important to conduct this review. Firstly, it is
now widely recognized that graduates in the 21st
century face an increasingly competitive
and volatile employment market, and it is critical that they are equipped with skills that
enable them to maximize their full potential (HEA, 2005). Regardless of their particular
discipline area, future graduates will need to have greater ownership of their employable
skills1
as well as the confidence to cope with economic upheavals and capitalize on career
opportunities. As a result, universities have increasingly been put under pressure to
illustrate how they are enhancing graduate employability (Dearing, 1997; BIS, 2009). In
this regard, academic institutions offering veterinary degrees are no exception (Henry &
Treanor, 2010).
Secondly, the veterinary business landscape is changing. Traditionally characterized by
small, independent private practices, which were mainly owner-run, the veterinary sector
has witnessed a significant growth in corporate business, with small, independent
practices being replaced by large branded chains, groups or partnerships in some areas
(Henry, Baillie & Rushton, 2011). Both the changing business landscape and the global
economic downturn have resulted in the sector becoming more competitive, with
veterinary practices now having to deal with reduced margins, a lack of marketing
1
Employable skills are those that prepare students specifically for the world of work; they include modern
workplace skills such as team working, business awareness and communication skills (BIS, 2009).

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expertise, difficulties recruiting and retaining suitably qualified staff, and potential loss of
revenues due to changes in how government contracts are awarded (Lowe, 2009; Henry et
al., 2011).
Finally, although many veterinary schools have started to introduce some business skills
into their degree programmes, there appears to be no common veterinary business
curriculum nor is there a sufficient body of research to inform the development of
veterinary business modules. By providing insights into contemporary practice in
business, especially entrepreneurship education in veterinary medicine, it is hoped that
this review can help inform and enhance curriculum development in this area, and also
contribute toward enhancing the employability of future veterinary graduates.
2. Methodology
A review of the academic literatures on business and entrepreneurship education was
conducted to provide context for the empirical review of contemporary practice. A
summary of this is included in the appendix. Following this, a combination of telephone
interviews, e-mail surveys and mini-focus groups were employed to gather data from
veterinary business educators, veterinary students and veterinary employers in relation to
business education. With regard to the veterinary educators, data were gathered from
educators in all seven veterinary schools in the UK, with the schools’ respective websites
also being examined for further details on their business programmes. In addition,
questionnaires were e-mailed to some international veterinary schools in an effort to
explore contemporary practice outside of the UK. Detailed responses were received from
Utrecht University (the Netherlands) and Murdoch University (Australia). Some
information was also received from veterinary schools in Australia (Adelaide), Canada
(Montreal) and the US (Tufts-Cummings).
With regard to the student perspective, data were gathered via mini focus groups held
with third year undergraduate students (n=14) at the Royal Veterinary College. Finally,
the views of UK veterinary employers were sought using a combination of telephone
interviews and e-mail surveys, yielding eleven valid employer responses.

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3. Contemporary Practice
Although veterinary programmes can vary from provider to provider, they are normally
intensive courses of study, incorporating pre-clinical, para-clinical and clinical
components over a five-year period of study2
. In addition to an in depth knowledge and
understanding of the scientific and clinical aspects, veterinary students also need to have a
grasp of the legal, ethical and social elements of veterinary practice. Thus,
communication and interpersonal skills, responsible and professional behavior, and an
understanding of the business context of veterinary practice are now being recognized as
important areas for veterinary educators. Accordingly, with specific regard to the latter,
many veterinary schools have started to incorporate some type of business module into
their curriculum.
3.1 In the UK
All seven of the UK’s veterinary schools were included in this review (Bristol,
Cambridge, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Liverpool, Nottingham and the Royal Veterinary
College – RVC). Of these, only two schools reported that they do not currently include
business in their undergraduate curriculum, although one of these schools appeared to
have a small entrepreneurial component by way of a business plan element in its final
year elective suite and also had definite plans to incorporate business and
entrepreneurship in its new/revised veterinary curriculum for 2012/13. Another veterinary
school reported that it only introduced veterinary business into the curriculum for the first
time last year (i.e. 2010/11), and that while it was “early days”, it seemed to be well
received by the students.
Structure and content
Amongst the five UK veterinary schools providing core veterinary business components,
there appears to be considerable discrepancy regarding the quantity of business teaching;
the frequency with which it appears across the veterinary degree programme, the
particular topics covered and the level of focus on entrepreneurship. By the same token,
there is considerable commonality in terms of where business ‘fits’ within the broader
2
Veterinary degrees are five years in the UK, but can be six years in mainland Europe and longer in other
countries.

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veterinary curriculum (i.e. under the ‘professional studies’ strand), the pedagogical
approaches adopted and the assessment methodologies employed.
As can be seen from Table 1, the quantity of business education provided across UK
veterinary schools varies from 24 to 44 hours, delivered across all five years3
of the
programme in some cases, or confined to just one or two years in others. With regard to
the topics covered, the core business principles of marketing, finance, human resources
management and business planning are included to some degree in most veterinary
business curricula, with some schools also offering elements of leadership, time
management, agribusiness and an understanding of the veterinary business landscape. It is
noted that many of the business modules have a strong entrepreneurial orientation, with
business planning, creativity, idea development, innovation, feasibility work, new product
development, entrepreneurship (as a dedicated, separate topic) and a ‘why be
enterprising’ introductory workshop included.
Delivery and assessment methods
For the most part, veterinary business teaching is delivered by a combination of internal
veterinary business academics and external speakers drawn from the veterinary practice
community. Relevant alumni with practice experience and business managers from the
universities’ respective enterprise/research units, veterinary clinics and hospitals are also
drawn on, particularly for the more entrepreneurship-related topics. In some cases,
relevant expertise from specialist veterinary marketing companies, consultancies,
accountancy firms and large corporates is also used to complement internal resources.
While a systematic evaluation of the veterinary business education provided is beyond the
scope of this review, there is a sense that all of this input appears to be well received by
students.
3
Cambridge University operates a six-year veterinary programme.

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Table 1. Business Education in UKVeterinary Schools
Vet
School
What is taught? Years Total
hours
Who teaches? How is it
taught?
Assessment
methods
1 - Why be enterprising?
- Creativity
- Marketing
- Finance
- Business planning
1, 3, 4 24 hrs - Internal business
academics
- External speakers
- Alumni
- Lectures
- DLs4
- Workshops
- Simulation
game
- MCQs5
- EMQs6
- Long answer
question
2 - Business landscape
- Innovation & enterprise
- Product design/idea dvlp.
- Marketing
- Agri-business
- Finance
- Feasibility study
1, 2, 3,
4, & 5
44 hrs - Internal vet academics
- Internal enterprise
tutors
- External speakers
- Alumni
- Lectures
- Workshops
- DLs
- Problem
solving tasks
- MCQs
- Coursework
- Assignments
3 - Finance
- Marketing
- HRM
- Business planning
Info not
available
Info not
available
- Graduate with practice
management experience
- Lectures
- Seminars
Info not available
4 - Team building/leadership
- Time management
- Basic business u/standing
- Finance
- Business planning
- Management
1, 2 3,
4, 5
24 hrs - Internal vets with
business experience
- External speakers
- Lectures
- Small group
tutorials
- MCQs
- Formal exam
5 N/A N/A 0 NA NA N/A
6 N/A N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A
7 - Strategy
- Marketing
- Practice management
- HRM
- Entrepreneurship
- Finance
- Business Planning
4 38 hrs - Internal vet academic
- Internal business
academic
- External speakers
- Lectures
- Case studies
- Team bus.
plan exercise
- Bus. plan
competition
- MCQs
- EMQs
Note: Vet school no. 1 also reported having an additional elective module. Electives have not been included in this
review because the focus was on core undergraduate business education.
4
DLs = directed learning sessions (students work on a problem/challenge in small groups facilitated by staff)
5
MCQs = multiple choice questions
6
EMQs = extended matching questions

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Delivery methods include lectures, workshops, seminars, tutorials and directed learning
sessions (DLs), with recognition amongst providers that lecture input needs to be
balanced with more interactive approaches in order to maximize student engagement.
This is particularly important in entrepreneurship-related topics, where real challenges
and problem solving activities are reported to have worked well. In terms of assessment,
both formative and summative methods are used, and these range from course work and
assignments (which were either formally or informally marked), through to multiple
choice questions (MCQs), extended matching questions (EMQs) and long answer/essay
style questions incorporated into final exams. It was suggested that course work and
team-based problem solving activities or business plan competitions are more appropriate
assessment mechanisms for business teaching; despite such elements requiring a
considerable amount of co-ordination and management on the part of veterinary
educators, there was some consensus that such mechanisms do provide a richer learning
experience for the students.
3.2 Internationally
The review also captured some insights into contemporary practice in veterinary business
education in schools outside of the UK. Questionnaires were e-mailed to five
international veterinary schools across the US, Canada, Australia and mainland Europe,
drawn from the author’s own contacts. In addition, a face-to-face interview was
conducted with the educator from one of the Australian schools (Murdoch) who was
visiting RVC at the time.
Overall, the international part of the review yielded detailed responses from two vet
schools - Utrecht University in the Netherlands, and Murdoch University in Australia -
with only basic information obtained from the other three (Adelaide University, Australia;
Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University, US, and the University of
Montreal, Canada).
The curriculum at Murdoch University’s School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences
(Australia) includes a number of business related aspects, and these are delivered in year
five of the veterinary programme. The focus here appears to be on ‘practice management’
rather than ‘entrepreneurship’, with lectures delivered mainly by external guest speakers.

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In addition, students are required to formally observe practice management when they are
on clinical rotations. The business element does not appear to be formally examined;
rather, assessment is by way of critical reflection. Currently, some eight hours are
dedicated to the business aspects at Murdoch, but it would appear that this is going to
increase to 16 hours in the very near future, with the introduction of practice management
seminars. Murdoch also has an active VBMA (a student-led Veterinary Business
Management Association) chapter.
At Utrecht University in the Netherlands, which operates a six-year veterinary
programme, there appears to be a considerable amount of business related topics – indeed
much more than any in other veterinary school covered in this review. That said, the
focus is more on business management than entrepreneurship. By way of introduction,
first year students are taught about the labour market, and in the third and fourth years,
they learn very specific business and management aspects relevant to veterinary practice.
Teaching on these topics can total up to 200 hours, excluding an elective module in year
two on ‘Economic Principles in Veterinary Medicine.’ It should be noted, however, that
some of these 200 hours include veterinarians’ ‘social responsibility’, so in reality the
business element is more likely to amount to 100-120 hours, still a considerable volume
of business teaching. Lectures, seminars and internships in veterinary practices are the
main delivery methods used, with assessment being mostly formative and informal.
However, electronic portfolios for students to self-assess their competency levels have
recently been introduced. Similar to veterinary schools in the UK, the delivery team at
Utrecht comprises both internal and external experts, i.e. vet and non-vet academics,
practitioners and government representatives.
The review also revealed that a module on ‘Practice Management’ is included in the
undergraduate veterinary programmes at both the University of Montreal and Adelaide
University. An element of veterinary business is also taught at the Cummings School of
Veterinary Medicine in the US, where there is also an active student-led VBMA chapter.

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3.3 Good practice examples
The review also aimed to uncover some potential good practice examples of veterinary
business teaching, especially entrepreneurship teaching. In this regard, ‘good practice’
was defined as ‘a specific element of the business programme that had proved to be
particularly successful and well received by the students.’ Some of these, as identified by
the veterinary schools themselves, are detailed below.
Nottingham – the entire fourth year business module at Nottingham is structured around
the development of a business plan. Working in teams, students are asked to write a
business plan to salvage a fictitious floundering veterinary practice. The module, although
based on an existing rather than a new business, has a strong entrepreneurial orientation,
culminating in a competition, with business plans being presented to a ‘Dragons’ Den’
style panel of external experts and veterinary practitioners. This initiative has been well
received amongst the students, proving very successful in terms of student learning and
team working.
Bristol – in the first year of their veterinary programme, Bristol students participate in the
‘Innovation & Enterprise Roadshow’ where they have an opportunity to interact with
external speakers and entrepreneurial individuals who have done ‘exciting things in
veterinary life’, ranging from starting their own veterinary practice, to charity work or
international travel for veterinary projects. Bristol students have requested that the
‘Roadshow’ is repeated in second year.
Edinburgh – in their final year, students at Edinburgh are required to work in small teams
to plan the purchase of new piece of equipment for a veterinary practice. They are
provided with all the necessary costings and have to present an investment calculation.
This exercise gives the students an understanding of the costs involved in running a
veterinary practice and shows them how professional fees are constructed.
Royal Veterinary College – in the third year of their programme, following the core
business lectures, students participate in an entrepreneurial simulation game ‘My First
Million’ offered by the University of Hertfordshire and Dialectyx. The initiative allows
student teams to apply their learning by ‘investing’ in ‘Dragons’ Den’ type business

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proposals. Then, in their fourth year, students are given the opportunity to enter the
‘Norbrook Enterprise Challenge’, a team based competition requiring the development of
an outline business plan for a new veterinary business idea. This tests students’ creative
thinking, entrepreneurial ability and teamwork.
4. Challenges Encountered and Issues Raised
4.1 Challenges
With regard to the initial desk research element of the project, a key challenge
encountered was the dearth of relevant literature pertaining to business education within
veterinary medicine, with most of the extant research emanating from the US (see
appendix for summary literature review). In terms of constructing the database, some
difficulties were also encountered in identifying the relevant contact person within the
veterinary schools, with several inquiries being made before the ‘right’ person was
located. Overall, however, the key challenges encountered in conducting the review
related to the timeframe (late summer/early autumn) and the busy nature of veterinary
work, both in academia and business/practice. Indeed, while it was the author’s intention
to organize a focus group of veterinary employers, this proved impossible to do within the
timeframe; for this reason, a combination of telephone interviews and e-mail surveys
were used to gather employers’ perspectives.
A further challenge in conducting the review was to ascertain how each veterinary school
was defining ‘business’ education. In some cases, for example, educators viewed
communication as part of the veterinary business curriculum, because it was a core
component of the ‘professional studies’ strand in which business was categorized. In so
far as possible, efforts were made to separate business education from other professional
studies topics.
Limitations
This review of contemporary practice in business education can be considered as
representative in view of its 100% coverage of UK veterinary schools; however, the
author fully acknowledges that the review could be enhanced with the inclusion of more
veterinary employers and additional student focus groups outside of the Royal Veterinary

13. 13
College. Although beyond the scope of this review, it would also be useful for future
reviews to involve longitudinal studies to evaluate undergraduate business teaching and
measure its impact on veterinary graduate employability.
While a certain element of self-reporting bias is unavoidable in reviews of this kind, both
on the part of the veterinary business educators and the author, there did appear to be
considerable willingness on the part of all those interviewed/surveyed to share with the
community what ‘worked’ and what ‘did not.’ This candid response to the review has
helped to provide valuable insights into real contemporary practice in veterinary business
education, particularly in the context of entrepreneurship education, which will directly
inform future curriculum development in terms of content, pedagogy and assessment.
4.2 Issues Raised
By the educators
One issue highlighted by veterinary educators in this review related to the perception of
business as a ‘soft’ academic subject within a highly scientific/clinical discipline. As
such, some veterinary faculty members as well as veterinary students tend to view it as a
‘peripheral’ or ‘optional’ subject, not critical to the practice of veterinary medicine. The
incorporation of business skills into the ‘Professional Studies’ strand of teaching, while
often convenient for timetabling, is also seen by some educators as contributing to this
‘optional’ image. Interestingly, ‘business’ or ‘entrepreneurship’ is not mentioned in the
on-line programme structures or web prospectus of most of the veterinary schools (with
the exception of one); this again possibly adds to their ‘optional’ or ‘peripheral’ image in
the context of the veterinary curriculum.
There are some concerns too amongst veterinary business educators that students tend to
be overly focused on learning clinical skills and passing exams and, as a result, do not
recognize the importance of business skills. For example, one educator reported that
employer feedback consistently suggested that graduates lack communication and team-
working skills, and do not understand the environment in which they are working. With
regard to the latter, some educators felt that the provision of business skills could help
graduates’ employability, enabling them to fully appreciate the wider commercial
environment in which they would be working and understand the impact of things like

14. 14
‘under-charging.’ It was also recognized that most veterinary graduates would start their
careers by working in small private veterinary practices (which are essentially SMEs –
small to medium sized enterprises) where an understanding of the financial aspects of
running a business would be critical. Some insight into what is needed to be a good
manager and leader was also identified as an important element that could enhance
graduates’ employability.
In terms of validating students’ business skills, the general consensus held by educators is
that academic assessments used as part of the programme, as identified in section 3
above, could be used. However, one educator suggested that traditional examinations are
not appropriate for business-related (particularly enterprise) skills; in this regard, recorded
participation and team-based competitions are strongly advocated. Portfolio work and
some element of critical reflection are also suggested as appropriate validation
mechanisms. In addition, one educator commented that students often found that their
business education became a key topic of conversation at interviews, with employers
seemingly impressed by these additional/non-clinical skills. Once in practice, it was felt
that direct feedback from employers by way of survey, for example, would be another
way of validating students’ business skills. One of the international vet schools included
in this review reported having developed a robust competency framework in which
entrepreneurship was highlighted as an important element. Using this framework,
students are asked to collect feedback on their competencies and input this into an
electronic portfolio, which is then assessed periodically by a panel.
Other issues highlighted by the review related to the overcrowded nature of the veterinary
curriculum: if business skills were to be included in veterinary teaching, or their provision
expanded, then other modules (particularly para-clinical subjects, e.g. pathology,
immunology, etc) would be ‘squeezed’; choosing good/relevant speakers; determining
appropriate assessment methods and sufficiently engaging with students to ensure
attendance.
By the students
The focus groups revealed that veterinary students do not appear to fully recognize the
value (or potential value) of business education in their veterinary career. That said, there
is general consensus that business and related skills would be more useful once students

15. 15
progressed to partner level, but not necessarily when they were working as assistants.
Furthermore, the students who participated in the focus groups were quick to point out
that business was not their priority, as the sample quotes below illustrate:
"I didn't apply to vet school worrying about money. There are lots of other jobs
you could do to make money quickly, and make a lot more money.”
"I know you have to know the business model, you don't want to run at a loss, but
money isn't my priority"
When the discussions focused on the specific business skills that might enhance
graduates’ employability, the main skills identified by the students relate to
understanding pricing, i.e. how prices for clinical operations and fees are calculated, so
that graduates can justify the fee to themselves and their clients), and being able to
balance customer satisfaction and profitability, as illustrated by the following comment:
“I think it’s a balance between trying to save money for the client so they’ll want
to come back, but you need to turn a profit.”
With regard to how business skills should be taught in the veterinary curriculum, the
students feel that they should not be taught within a lecture framework. Rather, they feel
such skills need to be taught in a practical manner. In this regard, the use of case studies
and ‘real’ practicing veterinary guest speakers are suggested:
“Really hard skill to just teach in a lecture – I think that it’s something you’ve got
to do practically, so probably case studies would be better.”
“Need real vets to come in and talk about their business.”
There was a difference of opinion as to whether such skills should be assessed, and if so,
whether such assessment should be formal or informal:
“I don’t think you should be formally assessed on it because we have enough
assessments on learning the science part”

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Students suggest that business lectures should be delivered after clinical rotations and
EMS (Extra Mural Studies), but not too close to exams. Presumably, this would provide a
sufficient practical foundation upon which students could reflect and apply their learning.
Finally, the students suggest that business skills should be integrated into clinical
scenarios, with sessions/lectures spread across the week, thus eliminating the ‘optional’ or
‘peripheral’ perception of the topic.
By the employers
The review reveals a general consensus that business education could enhance veterinary
students’ future employability. Employers feel that graduates need to be willing to
contribute to the overall success of a veterinary practice; that they should be able to
charge appropriately for the service they provide; be aware of the business needs of the
practice; be creative; have an understanding of ‘mark-up’ and ‘margins’, and have some
financial analysis and team-working skills, as illustrated in the following employer
comments:
“I look for the graduate to …… have a true understanding of the value of their
services, ….. [not being] afraid to charge clients for their time and skills.
Creativity is also important as they are likely to contribute good ideas for moving
the practice forward in the longer term.”
“….. having an understanding of the expenses involved in running a clinic,
appreciating the difference to working in a charity, suggesting ideas on how to
improve the performance of a clinic……”.
“I think having some business sense in private practice is essential and should be
part of the subjects taught at university.”
In terms of validating learning in these areas, employers feel that the best way is within
an educational setting, by using traditional academic exams, essays, on-line assessment,
competitions and challenges, as well as case reports and case studies. One employer was
unsure whether such skills could actually be assessed, suggesting that possibly the best
means of validation might be by some form of student self-assessment. Another employer
suggested that business skills could sometimes be evidenced in applicants’ CVs with, for

17. 17
example, veterinary business club membership (e.g. the Veterinary Business Management
Association – VBMA) being highlighted.
There were some conflicting views amongst employers as to whether the EMS
component of the veterinary curriculum could be used for business training, with a few
employers indicting that this might be a more realistic means of developing students’
business skills, and others suggesting that this might be quite difficult to achieve in
practice. One employer felt that EMS would probably not be an appropriate business
learning opportunity, as evidenced by the following comment:
I know myself from accepting EMS students that I would be hesitant to discuss
financials or business strategies with a student. Many are also not that receptive
whilst on EMS as it does seem to be daunting to many, so I do not feel they would
get true value out of any discussion of this nature.
Overall, the review notes that employers of veterinary graduates value business skills and
see them as hugely important. However, they also appreciate that not all graduates will
have them:
“Often graduates are too focused on pursuing clinical diagnosis”
“They [veterinary graduates] do not consider themselves ‘small businesses’,
therefore money making/management is very low on their priority list.”
“I have witnessed many cases of undercharging from new graduates trying to be
nice to clients and feeling guilty for charging full prices. What they do not seem to
comprehend is the true cost of running a veterinary business, the small profit
margins involved and the fact they are quite ‘just’ in charging a premium for their
5 years of dedicated study to become a vet.”
As a minimum, employers would generally like to see some element of business
awareness from the veterinary graduates they employ. Consistent with the views of some
of the veterinary business educators, employers report that graduates can often be too
focused on the clinical aspects of veterinary medicine to the detriment of other areas, and

18. 18
that some understanding of the financial aspects is important. Poor charging in the
veterinary profession, for example, can lead to poor performance from a business
perspective, so, understanding the basic principles of mark-ups and margins is critical. At
the fundamental level, employers expect graduates to appreciate that veterinary practices
need to make a profit.
5. Conclusions & Recommendations
This report has aimed to present a critical review of contemporary practice in business
education within UK veterinary schools. The objectives were: to explore what is currently
being taught in the context of veterinary business, especially in terms of entrepreneurship;
to consider how this can contribute to graduates’ employable skills and to reflect on how
such skills can be validated. A further objective of the review was to identify some
specific examples of contemporary practice and to highlight amongst these some potential
good practice examples of contemporary veterinary business and entrepreneurship
teaching.
Overall, the review highlights widespread recognition across all of the veterinary
schools that business education is important, despite not all students possibly
perceiving it as such during their undergraduate years. This view is also supported by
veterinary employers, who recommend that business skills should be part of veterinary
curricula. Essentially, employers are looking for graduates who understand that
veterinary practices are small businesses; graduates who have an appreciation of the
financial aspects of veterinary practice and who can make a meaningful contribution to
the practice’s future.
There is a general sense amongst the veterinary business educators that collaboration
between veterinary schools and a sharing of knowledge and experiences, and possibly
resources, would greatly benefit the academic veterinary community, allowing
educators to gain insights into what is happening in other veterinary schools. This is aptly
articulated by one of the educators interviewed as part of the review:
“I’ve realized by having this discussion that I’m not aware of what goes on
elsewhere; I’ve had my head down these last 18 months just trying to get through

19. 19
my workload…..I would really welcome the opportunity to talk about this with
others within the sector and find out what’s happening in other places and learn
new things.”
Another educator suggests that if business were included in all veterinary curricula as
core, then such skills would become more important to students and would cease to be
perceived as ‘optional.’ Yet another educator feels that the profession as a whole is
suffering as a result of poor management and/or the absence of good leadership, and
recommends that veterinary schools should increase their focus on business education
in order to improve both the financial and mental ‘health’ of the profession. One of the
international vet schools included in the review recommends that practice management
could be taught in an innovative manner by using a combination of final year students
and recent veterinary graduates, thus creating a natural support network for students.
While not always the best judge of what should or should not be included in the
curriculum, the veterinary students included in this review raised some very interesting
issues, with recommendations that would appear to be supported by the veterinary
business educators. Examples of these recommendations include using practical delivery
methods for the teaching of business skills, availing of informal rather than formal
assessment methods, using case studies, drawing on the experiences of real/practicing
vets and integrating business into the clinical curriculum to help eliminate the
‘optional/peripheral’ perception. Overall, the entrepreneurial elements of the various
veterinary business programmes appeared to particularly engage the students, providing
them with an appropriate challenge for them to reflect on and solve, mostly in teams.
Looking to the future, it is hoped that this review has provided some valuable insights
into what is currently being taught at UK veterinary schools in relation to business skills.
The good practice examples identified by the educators themselves should be seen as
initiatives that have been tried and tested by the various veterinary business educators,
who are willing to share their experiences. It is particularly interesting to note that the
entrepreneurship element within the veterinary business curriculum appears to be
gaining momentum; given the current economic climate and the continuous pressure
from government to enhance graduate employability, this could be a timely
development.

20. 20
Interestingly, despite its growing importance amongst the veterinary academic
community, and a clear interest in building up the business curriculum as a core
component of veterinary degrees, there is a stark absence of business content listed in
the programme structures of most of the UK veterinary schools. Indeed, regardless of
the quantity of business education actually provided, only one of the UK veterinary
schools listed ‘business skills’ on their website as an element of their veterinary
curriculum. This would appear to be a missed opportunity to develop business as a
legitimate module within veterinary medicine, and to embed it in the core veterinary
curriculum.
Finally, given the dearth of published research in this area, and the willingness for
veterinary business educators to share their experiences (as evidenced by their
participation in this review), it is recommended that an appropriate forum through
which veterinary business and entrepreneurship educators can collaborate is created.
In this regard, a dedicated business/entrepreneurship strand within the annual Veterinary
Education Symposium, in which all UK veterinary schools are represented, might be a
cost effective way of achieving this.
References
BIS – Department for Business Innovation and Skills. (2009). “Higher ambitions: The
future of universities in a knowledge economy,” available from www.bis.gov.uk
Dearing, R. (1997). “The Dearing Report,” available from:
https://bei.leeds.ac.uk/Partners/NCIHE
HEA – Higher Education Academy (2005). “Embedding employability in he curriculum:
enhancing students’ career planning skills,” report available from
http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/resources/detail/resource_database, last accessed 10th
May
2010.
Henry, C. and Treanor, L. (2010). “Entrepreneurship Education and Veterinary Medicine:
Enhancing employable skills”, Journal of Education & Training, Vol. 52, No. 8/9,
pp.607-623.

21. 21
Henry, C.; Baillie, S. and Rushton, J. (2011). “Exploring the future sustainability of farm
animal veterinary practice”, paper presented at the Rural Enterprise Conference,
Nottingham, June.
Lowe, P. (2009). “Unlocking potential – A report on veterinary expertise in food animal
production,” published by Defra (Department for Environment and Food Rural Affairs),
UK.

22. 22
Appendix I
Summary Literature Review
(compiled by Lorna Treanor, RVC)
Entrepreneurship Education
A review of the academic literatures highlights that entrepreneurship can be taught and
learned (Gibb, 2005; Kuratko, 2005; Blenker et al., 2006) and that educational
interventions can indeed influence the attitudes and future behaviours of students (Fayolle
et al., 2006) and assist them in evaluating future career options (Jack and Anderson, 1999;
Solomon et al., 2002; Packham et al., 2010). Matlay and Westhead (2005) also highlight
the benefit of entrepreneurship education in facilitating the transition for students from
higher education into either self-employment or employment. A key theme in the
literature is the importance of contextualising entrepreneurship education in terms of
discipline, country or sector context (Laukkanen, 2000; Packham et al., 2010), and
possibly even student gender (Packham et al., 2010).
The NCGE mapping study of UK HEIs found that entrepreneurship education has been
incorporated extensively throughout the UK Higher Education system with almost 95%
of HEIs delivering some form of entrepreneurship education to students, although a
variety of approaches and practices were employed. Of concern was the finding that the
majority of provision was to be found within business schools (61%), with the lowest
levels of engagement in medical and life science programmes (4%). On a more positive
note, engineering faculties seemed to be really engaging with the entrepreneurship
agenda, with almost one in ten HEIs incorporating some form of entrepreneurship
education within their engineering programmes (Hannon, 2007).
Research highlights that entrepreneurship education should be less book-based and more
experiential in nature to enable students to ‘learn by doing’, to develop their competence
and confidence in their skills (Dana, 1987). Gibb (1996) outlined the difference in
approach that should be taken by entrepreneurship educators:
Conventional Approach Enterprising Approach
Major focus on content Major focus on process delivery
Led by teacher Ownership of learning by participant
Expert ‘hands-down’ knowledge Teacher as fellow learner / facilitator
Emphasis on ‘know-what’ Focus on ‘know-how’ & ‘know-who’
Participants passively receive knowledge Participants generate knowledge
Learning objectives imposed Learning objectives negotiated
Emphasis on theory Emphasis on practice
Subject / functional focus Problem / multidisciplinary process
Sessions heavily programmed Sessions flexible and responsive to needs
European research however, would suggest that lectures remain the dominant teaching
tool employed, followed by case studies and guest lectures from visiting entrepreneurs
(Cooney & Murray, 2008; EU, 2004b). This can be explained by the reduced cost of
traditional teaching methods (Botham & Mason, 2007) and possibly convenience for
timetabling planners. However, online content and gaming are now increasingly used to
engage students (Greene et al, 2010).

23. 23
Entrepreneurship education policy
European policy has long promoted the inclusion of entrepreneurship education within
Higher Education in order to foster ‘entrepreneurial mindsets’, skills and knowledge
amongst graduates (EU, 2000; 2002; 2004a; 2004b). Entrepreneurship education in this
context has been clarified as follows (EU, 2008, p10):
“Entrepreneurship education should not be confused with general business and
economic studies; its goal is to promote creativity, innovation and self-
employment, and may include the following elements:
developing personal attributes and skills that form the basis of an
entrepreneurial mindset and behaviour (creativity, sense of initiative, risk-
taking, autonomy, self-confidence, leadership, team spirit, etc.);
raising the awareness of students about self-employment and
entrepreneurship as possible career options;
working on concrete enterprise projects and activities;
providing specific business skills and knowledge of how to start a
company and run it successfully.”
This European policy drive was based on the recognition that entrepreneurial individuals
would be more likely to engage in new venture creation and the commercialisation of new
technology, but would also be more ‘intrapreneurial’ as employees in a challenging
global knowledge economy and, as individuals, would possess the skills set and attitudes
required to manage their own personal development and lifelong learning in a competitive
labour market.
UK policy has also supported the inclusion of entrepreneurship education across all
disciplines (Dearing, 1997), and indeed, at all levels of education (Davies, 2002). The
European drive to embed entrepreneurship education in non-business disciplines was
based on a recognition that non-business graduates, especially those in Science,
Engineering and Technology programmes, may be more likely to found or manage a
small business in their later careers but lacked the requisite skills due to a focus on
subject-specific, technical skill development in educational curricula (EU, 2008). The
Lambert report (2003) had earlier recognised the importance of entrepreneurial attitudes
and skills for science and technology graduates in the UK.
Entrepreneurship education in non-business curricula
Examples can be found in the literature of the successful integration of business and
entrepreneurship education across a variety of degree programmes including art and
creative disciplines (Gose, 1997; Carey, 2010), and geography and environmental science
(Maguire & Guyer, 2004). Numerous examples can also be found of entrepreneurship
education delivery to science and engineering students producing successful outcomes at
individual, institutional and regional levels, from the UK (Handscombe et al., 2008), USA
(Sager et al., 2006) and across Europe (Papayannakisa et al, 2008; van der Heijden et al.,
2009).
Less evident in the literature, however, are examples of good practice and programme
evaluations from healthcare contexts. The nursing community has certainly been at the

24. 24
forefront of incorporating entrepreneurship into course content (see for examples,
Dickerson & Nash, 1999; Mangan, 2004). Unsurprisingly, similar benefits are reported to
have accrued to nurses at the individual level but also to employers and patients. There is
evidence of entrepreneurship education now being incorporated within medical degree
programmes in the USA. Padilla et al. (2011, p.52) highlight, “Many areas of healthcare
and medical practice can be made more efficient once business principles are factored,
and built into the solution. These include delivery of primary care services, pathology
services, emergency department services, cardiovascular services.” The authors highlight
that skills required in practice but not developed in traditional medical training
programmes included “business administration skills and, specifically, skills in financial
management and analysis and strategic planning, with additional skills in marketing,
accounting, cost accounting, communications, and business law. Negotiation skills and
techniques are not traditionally taught to medical professionals, yet successful negotiation
is required to run an efficient practice or organization” (Padilla et al; 2011, p.51/2). The
programme discussed highlighted that graduates were now better placed to take up roles
in the modern healthcare system requiring leadership and innovation and, as such,
graduates were better able to distinguish themselves from their competition, a benefit
reported for other science and engineering graduates (Handscombe et al., 2008; Shinnar et
al., 2009; van der Heijden et al., 2009; Vij and Ball, 2010).
Entrepreneurship education in UKveterinary medicine
Following the global recession, graduates arguably face an increasingly competitive and
volatile employment market, and it remains critical that they are equipped with skills
enabling them to maximise their full potential (HEA, 2005). Regardless of their particular
discipline area, future graduates will need to have greater ownership of their employable
skills7
as well as the confidence to cope with economic upheavals and to capitalise on
career opportunities. As a result, academic institutions have increasingly been put under
pressure to illustrate how they are enhancing graduate employability (Dearing, 1997; BIS,
2009). In this regard, academic institutions offering veterinary degrees are no exception
(Henry & Treanor, 2010).
Veterinary Medicine is now recognized as a vast and exciting field of endeavor, involving
the study, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease in animals, both as individuals
and as groups (QAA, 2002, p. 1). There is also growing recognition that veterinary
science can contribute significantly to the understanding of human disease. As a result of
these new opportunities within the sector, there has been a considerable increase in the
number of veterinarians trained and working in the UK (Lowe, 2009).
In terms of the veterinary business landscape, the sector has, traditionally, been
characterized by small, independent private practices, which have been mainly owner-
run. However, more recently, there has been significant growth in the corporate sector,
with small, independent practices being replaced by large branded chains, groups or
partnerships in some areas (Henry, Baillie & Rushton, 2011). There has been a marked
increase in small or companion animal work, with farm animal work now considered to
be in decline. Business challenges currently facing the veterinary sector include increased
competition, reduced margins on dispensed items, a lack of marketing expertise,
7
Employable skills are those that prepare students specifically for the world of work; they include modern workplace
skills such as team working, business awareness and communication skills (BIS, 2009).

25. 25
difficulties recruiting and retaining suitably qualified staff, and the potential loss of
lucrative government contracts as a result of new legislation (Henry et al., 2011).
Essentially, veterinary practices need to be able to offer their clients treatment and
prevention strategies that are both cost-effective and commercially aligned to the needs of
their business (Lowe, 2009: 55). However, many veterinary graduates proceed to
undertake research to develop new drugs or techniques that may require skills and
knowledge pertaining to commercialization and new product development. Those
entering industry, academia and the public sector may also be faced with line
management responsibilities, challenged to meet value-for-money requirements or
required to entrepreneurially compete for funding and other resources. Thus, the need for
business skills, particularly those focusing on entrepreneurship within veterinary curricula
has never been greater.
Bibliography
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business school’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 18(1), pp. 1–18.
Blenker, P., Dreisler, P., Foergeman, H., Kjeldsen, J. (2006). ‘Learning and Teaching
Entrepreneurship: dilemmas, reflections and strategies’, Edward Elgar Publishing,
Cheltenham.
Botham, R. and Mason, C. (2007). ‘Good Practice in Enterprise Development in UK
Higher Education’, National Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship, Birmingham.
European Commission, DG Enterprise & Industry, (2008). ‘Entrepreneurship within
Higher Education, especially non-business. Final Report of the Expert Group.’ Brussels,
March.
European Union (EU) (2000). European Charter for Small Enterprises, Feira European
Council, June.
European Union (EU) (2002). Final report of the expert group, ‘Best Procedure’ project
on Education and Training for Entrepreneurship, November.
European Union (EU) (2004a). “Action plan: the European agenda for entrepreneurship”,
EC, COM (2004) ,70 final, February.
European Union (EU) (2004b). “Education for entrepreneurship”, final report of the
expert group, November.
Greene, P. (2010). Institute for Small Business and Entrepreneurship Report.
Handscombe, R.D., Rodriguez-Falcon, E. and Patterson, E.A. (2008). ‘Embedding
enterprise in science and engineering departments ’ Education & Training, Vol. 50 No. 7,
pp. 615-625.
Hannon, P. (2007). ‘Enterprise for all? The fragility of enterprise provision across
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pp. 183-210.

26. 26
Henry, C. and Treanor, L. (2010). “Entrepreneurship Education and Veterinary Medicine:
Enhancing employable skills”, Journal of Education & Training, Vol. 52, No. 8/9,
pp.607-623.
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Burke (Eds), Gower Publishing.
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education: creating micromechanisms for endogenous regional growth', Entrepreneurship
& Regional Development, 12: 1, 25-47.
Packham, G., Jones, P., Miller, C. Pickernell, D. and Thomas, B. (2010). ‘Attitudes
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Bang, J., Jones, J., Nathoo, R., Thomas, B., Solomon, P., Forsythe, R., Klasko, S.K.,
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27. 27
Appendix II
Veterinary Educators’ Questionnaire
1. Is Business, Enterprise, Entrepreneurship, Management (or other similar topic) currently
(or has it ever been) included in your veterinary degree curriculum?
Yes _____ No _______
2. If answer to question 3 above is “no”, please say why or provide some comments as to
how important/unimportant you view such topics within the veterinary curriculum. For
example do you think the inclusion of business and enterprise (or related) topics within
the veterinary curriculum might enhance graduate employability? You might also let us
know whether you have any plans to introduce these topics into the curriculum in the
future. Then just complete questions 8, 9 and 12, skipping everything in between.
If the answer to question 3 above is “yes”, please state the nature of the topic – i.e.
“what” is taught (i.e. entrepreneurship, business start-up, business planning, finance,
marketing, general practice management, etc), “when” – i.e. in which year(s) it is taught,
‘how’ it is taught (i.e. large group lectures, DLs, workshops, small groups, etc), number
of hours delivered, whether it is compulsory or elective, and whether it is
assessed/examined. You might find it easier to complete the table below.
Year Topic Compulsory
or elective?
No. of
hours
Delivery
method
Assessment?
1
2
3
4
5
Other
undergrad
courses?
P/graduate

28. 28
3. Who delivers this teaching? (i.e. internal vet academics, internal business academics,
external guest speakers/vets, etc).
4. What sorts of challenges/problems have you encountered in the delivery of this teaching,
and is there an element of the teaching that you have changed or will change as a result
5. What is the make up of your internal delivery team/resources for business/enterprise and
how is the team/your activities funded?
6. How important do you think veterinary business/enterprise is perceived within your
veterinary school:
(Please use terms – ‘extremely important’, ‘important’, ‘not important’, ‘irrelevant’)
By your current students: ________________________________
By your prospective students: _______________________________
By the business and enterprise delivery team: ___________________
By other academics within the veterinary school: _______________
By senior management: ____________________
7. Do you believe that the teaching of business and enterprise can enhance your graduates’
employability? Please explain your answer, indicating ‘how’. (For example, have you
come across any evidence (i.e. stories from your graduates or employers) to support your
answer to the above question?
8. In your opinion, what is the best way to validate students’ achievement of business &
enterprise employability-enhancing skills? (i.e. formal written exam – MCQ or EMQ or
long answer question, assignment (graded or pass/fail basis?), participation in business &
enterprise programme (‘must show up’), team/group project or competition, EMS
feedback, graduate interview performance, job offers, etc).
9. We would like to platform some ‘good practice’ aspects of veterinary business teaching,
so could you tell us if there is a particular element of the programme that you feel really
works?
10. Do you have any other comments or perspectives you would like to share with us on this
topic?

29. 29
Appendix III
Students’ Questionnaire
1. In addition to core veterinary knowledge and skills, what other type of knowledge and
skills (in general) do you think would enhance your employability potential upon
graduation?
2. In the context of Business & Enterprise, what particular types of knowledge and skills do
you think could most enhance your employability?
3. How should such knowledge and skills be taught/delivered and assessed? [i.e. large group
lectures, small workshops, tutorials, DLs, on-line……]
4. In terms of the current Business & Enterprise programme, which aspect do you feel might
be most valuable to you in the future with regard to enhancing your employability? [Do
not confuse with ‘most enjoyable’, rather, we are looking for ‘most beneficial’].

30. 30
Appendix IV
Employers’ Questionnaire
1. In addition to core veterinary knowledge and skills, what other type of knowledge
and skills (in general) do you look for when employing veterinary graduates?
2. With specific regard to Business & Enterprise education within the veterinary
curriculum, are there particular types of knowledge and skills that you think should
be provided? If so, please say why.
3. In your opinion, how should such knowledge and skills be taught/delivered?
4. In your opinion, how should such knowledge and skills be assessed/validated?
5. Do you think the EMS element of the veterinary degree could be utilized to
accommodate business and enterprise skills development?
6. Have you seen any evidence of Business & Enterprise knowledge/skills/orientation
from:
a) those graduates currently seeking employment from you?
b) those graduates recently recruited by you in the last 3years?
If answer is yes to either of the above, please explain.
7. Do you have any other comments you would like to offer?