2. Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency, Variability, Location, Skewness,
and Shapes.
Inferential Statistics
Hypothesis Testing, relationship and regression, parametric and
non-parametric statistics such as z-test, t-test, chi-square test, F
–test (ANOVA), mann-whitney U test, Spearman rank correlation,
etc.
Sources:
Glass,G.V. and J.C. Stanley. (1970). Statistical Methods in Education
and Psychology. U.S.A.: Prentice –Hall ,Inc.
Brase, C.H. and C.P. Brase. (1987). Understandable Statistics.U.S.A.:
Heath and Company.
4. Hypothesis testing is the process of inferring from a sample
whether to accept or reject a certain statement about the
population. In most cases, a working hypothesis is an educated
guess that a researcher made about the chosen sample of used
in the study. Examples of hypothesis is as follows:
1.Boys are better than girls in manipulative skills.
2.There is no significant correlation between interest in science and the career
choice of high school graduates in science.
3.Girls are better than boys in taking down notes.
4.Method A is more effective in developing the higher order thinking skills of the
learners than Method B.
The acceptance or rejection of the working or statistical
hypothesis is based on the level of significance selected. Usually,
the level of significance is generally set at 5% or at alpha (ά) =
0.05. If you will allow yourself to make 5% error in your final
statement, then choose ά = 0.05 or if you would like to make a more
stringent statement, then improve the level of significance to ά = 0.01 or
0.001.
5. The term null hypothesis (Ho) is
used for any hypothesis which is set up
primarily for the purpose of seeing whether
it can be rejected.
Any hypothesis which differs from
the null hypothesis is called an alternative
hypothesis
(Ha).
An
alternative
hypothesis is constructed in such a way
that it is the one to be accepted when the
null hypothesis must be rejected.
6. Example1. If we are going to test the
correlation of Physics and Physical Education
subjects, we formulate the Null hypothesis (Ho)
and the Alternative hypothesis (Ha) as follows:
Ho:
There is no correlation between Physics
and Physical Education subjects
Physics and Physical education subjects
are not correlated.
Ha: There is a correlation between Physics and
Physical Education subjects
Physics and Physical education subjects
are correlated.
7. Example 2. If we are to test the Different
responses of the Different Groups, the Ho and Ha
would be as follows:
Ho: The responses of the different groups do
not differ
There is no significant difference among the
responses of the different groups.
Ha:
The responses of the different groups differ
There is a significant difference among the
responses of the different groups.
8. Additional Examples:
Ho:
The Filipino and Non-Filipino do not differ from their
views of war.
Ha:
The Filipino and Non-Filipino differ from their views
of war.
Ho:
The students do not differ in their views of war when
classified according to sex, educational level, curriculum
year and leadership status.
Ha:
The students differ in their views of war when
classified according to sex, educational level, curriculum
year and leadership status.
Title: Views of War Among Undergraduate and Graduate
Students: A Cross- Cultural Study
by Lupdag, Rayos & Santos
9. Additional Examples:
Ho:
There is no significant relationship between the grades
in Mathematics of the Deaf and Mute students and their grades
in English subjects.
Ha:
There is a significant relationship between the grades
in Mathematics of the Deaf and Mute students and their grades
in English subjects
Ho:
There is no significant difference between the sexes of
the Deaf and Mute students in terms of their grades in
a. English
b. Mathematics
Ha:
There is a significant difference between the sexes of
the Deaf and Mute students in terms of their grades in
a. English
b. Mathematics
Title: Relationship between the English Grades and the
Mathematics Grades of the Deaf and Mute Students by
Subia & Mamaclay
10. Additional Examples:
Ho:
There is no significant difference between the
competencies of BHW of San Jose and Sta. Arcadia
Ha:
There is a significant difference between the
competencies of BHW of San Jose and Sta. Arcadia
Ho:
SDP,HCDS, and BHW do not predict level and
frequency of Community Involvement
Ha:
SDP,HCDS, and BHW predict level and frequency of
Community Involvement
Title: Predictors of Community Involvement in Health
and Heath Related Projects and Programs in Two
Barangays in Nueva ecija
by M. Gonzales
Dean Marilyn Bautista, Adviser
Gener Subia, Statistician
11. APA FORMAT
Smith, C. R. (2004). Learning disabilities: The Interaction of
students and their environment (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education
.
Choate,J.S., Enright, J.S., Enright, B.E. Miller,L.J., Poteet, J.A., &
Rakes, T. A. (1995). Curriculum-based assessment and
programming. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Cohen, L.G. & Speciner, L.J. (2003). Assessment of children and
youth with special needs. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
12. PARAMETRIC TEST
Parametric tests are applied to data that are
normally distributed, the levels of measurement of which
are expressed in interval and ratio. Parametric statistics
are more powerful than nonparametric statistics. The
parametric tests are:
z-test
t-test
F-test (ANOVA)
r ( Pearson Product Moment Correlation)
13. The p-value
The smallest level of significance at which Ho will be
rejected based on the information contained in the sample.
An Alternative form of decision rule (based on the p-value)
Reject Ho if the p-value is less than or equal to the level of
significance(ά).
Example: at ά = 0.05
p-value
Decision
0.01
Reject Ho
0.05
Reject Ho
0.17
Do not reject Ho
14. Z-test
It is used to compare the two sample means taken from
the samples are equal to or greater than 30. The z- test
can be applied in two ways: the One-Sample Mean Test
and the Two-Sample Mean Test.
The z-test is a parametric statistics used to compare
two means the sample mean and the perceived
population mean.
