Learning Outcomes1. Describe correlations and regression a.docx

Learning Outcomes
1. Describe correlations and regression analyses.
2. Analyze the relationship between correlations and
predictions.
Introduction
In contrast to Week Three where statistical tests focusing on
differences were introduced, in Week Four, you will explore
relationships in statistical tests. Correlations and linear
regression techniques will be utilized and results will be
evaluated and interpreted. The written assignments in Weeks
One, Two, and Three prepared you for analyzing and evaluating
research articles. In the written assignment this week, you will
focus less on actual research and more on the report writing
process.
If you work in a social/behavioral sciences field, you will likely
be asked to conduct research (i.e., conduct an experiment or
study) and create a report based on your findings. Generally
speaking, people who investigate a scientific hypothesis have a
responsibility to the scientific community to share those
results. This is particularly true when that investigation adds
to/or contradicts previous research. The research report
outlines each step that was done during the research and
summarizes the results and conclusions. The goal is to give the
reader enough information so that the methods and results can
be accurately evaluated, and the conclusions can be replicated if
necessary. Although the research report this week will be based
on hypothetical and/or fictitious data, the process of creating a

correctly formatted research report with all the necessary
components will provide you with important skills as you
progress through your degree and as you continue into the world
of the social/behavioral sciences.
Required Resources
Required Text
Read from the course text, Statistics for the Behavioral & Social
Sciences:
· Chapter 8: Correlation
· Chapter 9: Linear Regression
Recommended Resources
Articles
1. Kirwan, J., Lounsbury, J., Gibson, L. (2010). Self-direction
in learning and personality: The Big Five and narrow
personality traits in relation to learner self-
direction. International Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 7(2),
21-34. Retrieved from http://sdlglobal.com/IJSDL/IJSDL7.2-
2010.pdf#page=25
· This is an article about personality, self-directed learning, and
scale development and the major traits that may affect them.
These include: agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional
stability, and openness. It incorporates correlation and
regression procedures with tables that display the statistical
results.
2. Stark, P.B. (2013). Chapter 9: Regression. Retrieved from
http://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~stark/SticiGui/Text/regression.ht
m
· This website contains several video lectures and examples of
how regression is used.

3. Trochim, W. M. (2006). Correlation. In Research Methods
Knowledge Base. Retrieved from
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statcorr.php
· This website contains many tutorials and tools for statistical
analyses and methods used in the social sciences. This
particular page is a detailed description, with examples and
graphs, to help understand correlation statistics.
Websites
1. VassarStats: Website for Statistical Computation.
(http://vassarstats.net)
· This website includes tools to calculate many of the statistical
tests we cover in this course including t-tests, ANOVA,
correlation, and regression. Each calculator includes a tutorial
and/or walkthrough.
2. Web Center for Social Research Methods.
(http://socialresearchmethods.net)
· This website includes links to numerous tools and tutorials
relating to statistical concepts, calculations, and scale
development.
.
Correlation
In this post, you will be challenged to look at how statistical
tests, such as correlation are commonly used and the possible
limitations of such analyses. In addition, you will need to
identify the appropriate application of course-specified
statistical tests, examine assumptions and limitations of course
specified statistical tests, and communicate in writing critiques
of statistical tests.
Much has been written about the relationship between students’
SAT test scores and their family’s income. Generally speaking,
there is a strong positive correlation between income and SAT
scores. Consider and discuss the following questions as you
respond:

· What does this correlation tell you?
· Is this correlation evidence that having a high family income
causes one to have high SAT scores?
· Is this correlation evidence that high SAT scores are a cause
of higher income? Or, does this tell you something else?
Explain your answer.
· Explain why correlation alone is rarely sufficient to
demonstrate cause.
· 1 –Correlation – Looking at the Pearson Correlation, positive
and negative correlations and the relationship between
correlation and causation.
· In a separate area with references, if applicable, answer these
questions:
· How strong do you feel your explanations are?
· What might you do to strengthen their arguments?
When grading the Correlation paper I will be looking for your
answer to contain:
Week 4 Paper 1 Board Rubric
Earned
Weight
Content Criteria
0.5
Student identifies and defines what the concept of what a
Pearson correlation means.
Student applied concept of correlation to income and SAT
Scores to show working knowledge of material.
0.5

Student identifies type of data used in correlation.
0.5
Student explores why correlation does not equal causation
0.5
The student responds to at least two classmates’ initial posts by
Day 7.
1
Format
2
Student uses correct spelling, grammar and sentence structure.
Total
5
Intellectual Elaboration:
So far we have looked at descriptive statistics which show how
data looks and inferential statistics which means you are
looking to draw a conclusion beyond what the immediate data
present can tell you. This week we will look at the relationship
between statistical tests and why they are used to look at
similarities within data.
Correlation is when we look at the relationship between two
items (Tanner, 2011). When you eat spicy food you may notice
that you have heartburn. This means that there could be
correlation between spicy food and digestion issues. You may
notice that when the moon is full dogs bark in your
neighborhood which means there may be a correlation between
the full moon and dogs barking. To find out if there is a
relationship between the variables of spicy food and digestion
issues or dogs barking and the full moon you can collect and

analyze the data. To determine the strength of these
relationships (as opposed to testing the differences present such
as with the z-test or t-test) you will want to test for a hypothesis
of association. When the statistics are significant this means
that there is a relationship within the variables being tested.
A correlation in the hypothesis of association, meaning that
there is a relationship between the variables being studied, is
judged by a -1.0 or a +1.0. The closer to 1.0 that a correlation is
the more perfect the correlation is in its relationship. A
positive correlation (closer to +1.0) means that as variable A
increases so does variable B and as variable A decreases so does
variable B. A negative correlation (closer to -1.0) means that as
variable A increases variable B decreases (Lanthier, 2002).
When testing the hypothesis of a correlation the null hypothesis
will mean that there is no relationship between the variables
(the opposite of the null hypothesis of the t-test and ANOVA in
which the null hypothesis states that there is no change between
variables). The alternative hypothesis (that you take if the null
hypothesis is not true) is that there is a statistically significant
correlation between the two variables (Tanner, 2011).
In order to test correlation you can use different correlations
such as the Pearson correlation or the Spearman Rho. With the
Pearson correlation you are using interval or ratio data, while
with the Spearman Rho you are using data from an ordinal scale
(Tanner, 2011). An example of a ordinal scale is a Likert Scale
used in research to rank preference on a scale of 1 to 5.
It is also important to recognize that correlation, a statistical
significance in the relationship within groups, does not
necessarily mean that one variable causes another variable
(Tanner, 2011). For example let’s say that you have three foods,
a pepper and onion pizza, jalapeno poppers, and an onion petal
with a zesty dipping sauce. You notice after all three meals that
you do not feel good. You know there is a correlation between
eating these foods; however do you know there is causation with
the spiciness of the foods? What if you do not know you are
lactose intolerant and the dairy in these foods is the culprit?

This means there is still a correlation between your illness and
these foods however other spicy foods without dairy will not
have the same effect on you. Therefore the food has two
variables, dairy and spice, and the variable of spicy food is not
a cause.
When looking at regression we use the relationship between
variables (such as a statistically significant correlation) to make
a prediction that variable A will cause an effect on variable B.
This type of analysis can be seen in the predictions of our
economy. If unemployment is going up what does that mean for
the consumer market? It unemployment is going down, does
this mean that consumer spending will go up? It is through the
use of correlations that we are able to make a prediction through
the use of regression through predictor and criterion variables
(Tanner, 2011).
Additional Resources (web links, videos, and articles):
Correlation: http://www.nvcc.edu/home/elanthier/methods/corre
lation.htm
Please Watch the Video: Tests of Difference
References:
Lanthier, E. (2002). Correlation. Retrieved
from http://www.nvcc.edu/home/elanthier/methods/correlation.h
tm
Tanner, D. (2011). Statistics for the behavioral & social
sciences. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
Assignment
To complete the following assignment, go to this
week's Assignment link in the left navigation.
Research Report
Write a research report based on a hypothetical research study.
Conducting research and writing a report is common practice
for many students and practitioners in any of the behavioral
sciences fields.

A research report, which is based on scientific method, is
typically composed of the different sections listed below:
1. Introduction: The introduction states a specific hypothesis
and how that hypothesis was derived by connecting it to
previous research.
2. Methods: The methods section describes the details of how
the hypothesis was tested and clarifies why the study was
conducted in that particular way.
3. Results: The results section is where the raw uninterpreted
data is presented.
4. Discussion: The discussion section is where an argument is
presented on whether or not the data supports the hypothesis,
the possible implications and limitations of the study, as well
as possible future directions for this type of research.
Together, these sections should tell the reader what was done,
how it was done, and what was learned through the research.
You will create a research report based on a hypothetical
problem, sample, results, and literature review. Organize your
data by creating meaningful sections within your report. Make
sure that you:
· Apply key concepts of inferential hypothesis tests.
· Interpret the research findings of the study.
· Examine the assumptions and limitations of inferential tests.
· Develop a practical application of the research principles
covered in this course.
Focus of the Research Report
To begin, create a hypothetical research study (you do not have
to carry out the study; you will just have to describe it) that is
based on the three pieces of information listed below. Once you
have your hypothetical study created, write a three- to four-page
research report (excluding title and reference pages) that
outlines the study. You are encouraged to be creative with your
research study, but be sure to follow the format outlined below
and adhere to APA formatting as outlined in the Ashford
Writing Center.

Your hypothetical research study should be based on the
following information:
· Recent research has indicated that eating chocolate can
improve memory. Jones and Wilson (2011) found that eating
chocolate two hours before taking math tests improved
scores significantly. Wong, Hideki, Anderson, and Skaarsgard
(2009) found that women are better than men on memory tests
after eating chocolate.
· There were 50 men and 50 women who were randomly
selected from a larger population.
· A t-test was conducted to compare men and women’s
performance on an assessment after eating chocolate. The
results showed an independent t-test value of t .05(99) = 3.43; p
< .05
Your research study must contain the following:
1. Title Page
a. Title of your report
b. Your name
c. The course
d. Instructor
e. Date
2. Introduction
a. Introduce the research topic, explain why it is important, and
present the purpose of the paper and the research question and
hypothesis.
b. Discuss how this study is related to other research on the
topic.
c. Elaborate on the information from the references you were
given. State how they relate to your hypothesis.
d. Your introduction must:
· Consist of a paragraph explaining what you are studying and
why. Use previously cited research to explain your expectations
and discuss how those expectations led to your hypothesis.
· State a clear and testable hypothesis and whether it is one-
tailed or two-tailed.

· Make sure it is understandable to someone who has not read
the rest of your pape yet.State the null hypothesis.
· Include a justification of the direction of your hypothesis. In
other words, explain why you chose the direction of your
hypothesis if it is one-tailed (e.g., previous research suggests
that people with big feet are more likely to score higher on
math tests; therefore the hypothesis is one-tailed) or if it is
two-tailed (e.g., previous research is not clear on which group
will perform better; therefore, the hypothesis is two-tailed).
· Describe why this study is important.
3. Method
a. Design: State the experimental design of your study, the
independent and dependent variables, and what the task was
(e.g., what you had the participants do).
b. Participants: Identify and describe your sample, how the
participants were selected to be in the study, and why you chose
them. Provide details for how each individual was assigned to
each group.
c. Procedure: Describe the precise procedure you used to
conduct this research (i.e., exactly what you did). It should be
clear enough that anyone could replicate your study. This is
the subsection where you tell the reader how you collected the
data.
d. Data Analysis: Describe the statistical procedure used in the
study to analyze the data.
4. Results. In this section, you will describe the statistical
results:
a. State the statistical tests that were used.
b. Justify the choice of test.
c. State the observed value and significance level and whether
the test was one or two tailed.
d. State your conclusion in terms of the hypothesis.
e. Did you accept or reject the null hypothesis?
5. Discussion: Discuss your results as they relate to your
hypothesis.
a. Did you accept the hypothesis or reject it?

b. Compare your results to the previous studies mentioned in the
introduction. Are your results similar or different? Discuss why.
c. Tell the readers what your findings mean. Why did you get
the results you did?
· Identify limitations to your study.
· Suggest ways your study could be improved.
· Suggest ideas for future research, not just a continuation of
your study, but research that is similar to this study. Perhaps
one of the variables could be changed or a different sample
could be investigated.
· Finish with a concluding paragraph that is a statement of your
findings and the key points of the discussion.
6. Conclusion: Write a paragraph detailing your experience with
writing a research report. Discuss how easy/difficult it was to
write a false report that reads like real results, and how this
experience might affect you review research in the future. Do
you think this experience will provide you with a useful skill in
your potential career?
7. References: You will create a minimum of three fictitious
references in the following format based on the information you
have created in the preceding sections of the report:
a. Author, A., & Author, B. (Publication year). Title of the
article. Journal Name, volume number(issue number), page
numbers.
b. Example: Jones, A., & Williams, B. (2013). Why monkeys
are good pets. Journal of Silly Science, 23(4), pp. 221-222.
Writing the Research Report
The Assignment:
1. Must be three to four double-spaced pages in length
(excluding title and reference pages) and formatted according to
APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
2. Must include a title page with the following:
a. Title of paper
b. Student’s name
c. Course name and number

d. Instructor’s name
e. Date submitted
3. Must document all sources in APA style, as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center.
4. Must include the sections with the appropriate headings and
content listed above.
5. Must include a separate reference page, formatted according
to APA style
M5 AssignmentModule 5 Assignment:Pearson began 2012 with
30,000 $1 common shares issued and outstanding. Paid in
capital in excess of par was $25,000 and retained earnings were
$175,000. Net income for 2012 was $22,000. Pearson Wood
Supplies completed the following transactions for 2012.
Jan2Issued 10,000 shares $1 par common stock for $10 per
share6Declared a cash dividend on 5,000 shares of 5% $4 par
preferred stock and a $.20 per share dividend on 40,000 shares
of common stock outstanding. The date of record is January 15
and the date of payment is Jauary 20.20Paid the cash
dividendMarch15Declared a 2-for-1 stock split by calling in the
40,000 shares of $1 par common stock and issuing new stock in
its placeApril10Declared and distributed a 10% stock dividend
on the common stock when the market value was $12 per
shareJune 14Purchased 1,000 shares of common stock for the
treasury for $13 per shareDec22Sold 500 treasury shares for $15
per shareRequirements:1Record the transactions in the
journal.JournalDateAccountsPost Ref.DebitCredit2Prepare the
statement of shareholders' equity for 20XX.Pearson Wood

SuppliesStatement of Shareholders' EquityFor the year ended
2012Preferred stockCommon StockAdditional Paid in
CapitalRetained EarningsTreasury StockTotal

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