The most important types of socio-psychological barriers to communication that you may have to deal with on a regular basis are listed and explained below: 1. Emotions Emotional issues, whether within an individual or between individuals, can directly impact thinking and communication skills. Fear, anxiety, anger and other common emotions can and do hamper how you relay your messages to others as well as interpret their messages to you. 2. Opinions And Attitudes Opinions and attitudes can be a major socio-psychological barrier. If you constantly disagree with a colleague on professional matters (perhaps even personal or political matters), it’s quite unlikely that organizational communication between the two of you will happen seamlessly. 3. Difference In Status Several socio-psychological barriers to effective communication may emerge from the different statuses that members within an organization hold. In many workplaces, employees and their seniors don’t get along because the former are too

1. Administrative &
Business Communication
(Mgt. 2011)
Instructor:
Tesfaye Zewge Haile

2. UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Nature of Communication
1.1.1 Communication as a Means of Sharing
Ideas
According to the etymological background
(historical study) of the word communication, it was
originally derived from the Latin word "communis",
which literary means sharing or making
something common.
This broad meaning gradually got its specific
meaning as communicating means sharing of ideas.
Yet, the word idea itself is a little bit broader in that
it refers to ideas stored both in the short-term and
long-term memories of the mind.

3. Communication is a means of sharing
some pieces of ideas kept in the short-
term memory, which can technically
be called information, and ideas kept
in the long-term memory,
technically known as intelligence or
knowledge.
It should be clear that the information
we receive can be changed to knowledge
through repeated retrieval.

4.  Communication is not only an aspect of
transferring and receiving ideas, but also
giving response or feedback regarding
the message received.
 This makes the communication process a
two-way cycle as the two parties are
equally involved both in sending and
receiving message and responses.

5. 1.1.2 Communication as a common thing
for all Living Things
 Communication is not limited to only human
beings.
 This is basically because communication is based
on processing ideas in the information-processing
unit of the mind or simply thinking.
 So, thinking is something shared among different
animals including man.
 In fact, the level of thinking between man and
other animals differ as man thinks analytically
by examining things from different perspectives
while other animals process ideas instinctively
by looking at things plainly from one angle.

6. 1.1.3 Communication as a Continuous Process
 One of the most common wrong assumptions that people have
regarding communication is that they believe communication is
something that cannot be performed at one time and stopped at
another.
 But, due to two main factors communication appears a
continuous process that cannot be stopped at a predetermined
stage or level.
 The first main reason is that we communicate with the help the
three levels of consciousness we have, namely:
 Consciousness (full feeling and knowledge of what we do:
our thoughts, actions, and awareness)
 Sub-consciousness (partial feeling and knowledge of what
we do: the reactions and actions we realized when we think
of it)
 Unconsciousness (no feeling and knowledge of what we do:
the deep recesses of our past and memories)

7.  It is only a very limited part of our
communication that takes place with our full
feeling and knowledge (consciousness).
 Most of our communication practices are done
sub-consciously and unconsciously.
 So, it can be clearly observed that we may not
feel and know we are communicating internally
and with ourselves or externally with friends,
colleagues, superiors etc., yet we keep ourselves
busy in communicating.

8. The second reason that makes communication a
continuous process is the amount of possible media,
especially in the case of non-verbal communication,
that we have.
In our body movement, facial expression, posture,
clothing, and even silence there is always
communication.
We cannot start it at one time and stop it at another.
It is rather beyond our control.
Hence, we always communicate uninterruptedly with
the help of the various media we posses.

9. 1.1.4 Communication in Verbal and Non-
verbal Forms
 There are some people who feel that
effective communication is held only
through speaking or writing (technically
called verbal communication).
 This view is wrong in that apart from
speaking there are other means of
communication.
 Even while we speak, we often resort to
physical gestures.
 We wave our hands, shrug our shoulders,
smile and nod to reinforce what we say.

10.  There are several other means of
communication available to us.
 We use non-linguistic symbols such as traffic
lights, road signs, railway signals to convey
information relating to the movement of
vehicles and trains.
 We also use telegraphic code for quick
transmission of messages and secret codes for
communicating defense and other highly
confidential information.

11. 1.1.5 Communication and Frame of Reference
 One of the points to note in communication is that in
every communication situation there are two parties, a
sender and receiver, who interact with in a common
frame of reference.
 Without a common background, purpose, interest, and
verbal and nonverbal media, there can be no
effective communication.
 An important factor in the communication process is the
existence of co-operation between the sender and
the receiver.
 If we speak to a person who is totally lost in his
thoughts or use a language he does not understand, no
communication will take place.

12. 1.1.6 Communication as the Only Means of
Satisfying Needs
 Many communication problems are caused by a lack of
understanding of human behavior.
 As communicator, you must recognize that all human
beings have certain needs at certain times.
 A successful communicator has the ability to understand
the needs of those who will receive his message.
 He/she speaks and writers with the revivers' needs in
mind at all time.
 A person at any given time has a need. This need arises
out of physical or psychological imbalances.
 Communication starts with satisfying needs and wants.
For example, people need food, air, water, clothing and
shelter to survive.
 Beyond this, they also have a strong desire for
recreation, education and other services.

13. 5. Self-actualization Needs
4. Esteem Needs
3. Social Needs
2. Safety and Security Needs
1. Physiological Needs
Secondary needs or
Psychological or Psychogenic
Needs
Primary needs or Physiological
Biogenic
 Abraham Maslow, a behavioral scientist has talked
about human needs.
 He said that human need takes the form of a hierarchy.
 That is, once a person is satisfied with his basic needs,
he keeps on opting for his secondary needs.

14. a. Physiological Needs (Basic Physical Needs)
They include:
 food, shelter, air, water, cloth etc.
Once the person is satisfied with his primary needs,
he keeps on opting to satisfy his secondary needs.
Psychological needs arise out of psychological
imbalances.
b. Safety and Security Needs
They include:
 Security and safety in the work place;
 Protection;
 Comfort and peace;
 No threats or danger;
 Orderly and net surroundings;
 Assuming of long-term economic success.

15. c. Social Needs (The Need to Belong)
They include:
 Acceptance;
 Feeling of belonging;
 Membership in group;
 Love and affection;
 Group participation.
d. Esteem or Ego Needs (The Need to be
Somebody)
They include:
 Recognition and prestige;
 Confidence and leadership;
 Competence and success;
 Strength and intelligence.

16. e. Self-Actualization Needs (The Need to help
others and be creative)
They include:
 Self-fulfillment of potentials;
 Doing things for the challenge of
accomplishment and intellectual curiosity;
 Creative and aesthetic appreciation and
acceptance of reality.
 To be a successful communicator, you must try
to determine the needs of the people to whom
you are speaking or wring.
 In short, communication is important to most
areas of our lives. Simply, we can say that to
live is to communicate.

17. 1.2 Definition of Communication
 Different scholars have tried to define the
term communication in different ways.
 The common problem in most of the
definitions is that they do not clearly show
all the features and nature of
communication.
 For example, the definition of
communication suggested by Peter Little
lacks many things that can vividly be
observed in the nature of communication.

18. As to Peter Little (1977:4)
communication is "the
process by which information
is passed between individuals
and/or organizations by means
of previously agreed symbols."

19.  But there are at least six points in the above
definitions that do not agree with the features of
communication discussed in the previous
section.
 These errors and their possible corrections are
presented to you as follow:
Errors Corrections
• _____________ . _________________
• _____________ . _________________
• _____________ . _________________
• _____________ . _________________
• _____________ . _________________
• _____________ . _________________

20. Errors Possible Corrections
1. Process  not a simple process; rather it is
continuous process
2. Information  not only information; but also
ideas as a whole (including
intelligence or knowledge)
3. Passed  not passed but shared
4 Individuals/organizations  not only individual or
organization; but also all living
things.
5. Previously agreed symbols  not only symbols; but in
general common frame of
reference

21.  William P. Galle, Beverly H. Melson and other (1996:4)
also define communication, as "communication is the
meaningful exchange of information between two or more
parties and soliciting feedback."
 However, this definition seems to forget the knowledge
aspects of communication as it focuses only on the
information.
 Therefore, in order to settle the aforementioned
problems in the definitions of communication, the
definition below can be taken as a working definition as
it treats and encompasses all the features and nature of
communication.
 Communication is a continuous process through which
ideas are shared between/among two or more parties
with common frame of reference in order to satisfy
both physiological and psychological needs.

22. 1.2.1 Definition of Administrative & Business
Communication
 Administrative & Business communication is a
specialized branch of general communication.
 It is hardly possible to make a basic difference
between the two.
 The process and the principles that regulate them
are similar.
The difference lies in their application to situations.
 General Communication is concerned with many
roles at large.
 Administrative & Business communication is
concerned with business activities, and these
business activities are of two types:
• Internal
• External

23.  Internal business activities include:
 Maintaining and improving the morale of
employees
 Giving orders to workers
 Prescribing methods and procedures
 Announcing policies and organizational
changes
 Keeping the management informed
 External business activities include:
 Selling and obtaining goods and services
 Reporting to the government and the
shareholders on the financial condition and
business operations.
 Creating a favorable
 Climate for conducting business

24.  The main features that lend Business Communication a
distinct identity are as follows:
 It deals with various commercial and industrial
subjects.
 It is characterized by certain formal elements such as
commercial and technical vocabulary, the use of
graphic and audio-visual aids, and conventional
formats.
 It is impartial and objective as extreme care is taken
to convey information accurately and concisely.
 It has comparatively a high concentration of certain
complex writing techniques and procedures.
 Administrative & Business Communication is the use of
effective language for conveying a commercial or
industrial message to achieve a predetermined purpose
(financial and psychological profits)

25. 1.3 Elements of Communication
 Communication has such elements as
sender, idea, process of encoding, message,
medium, channel, process of decoding,
receiver, and response or feedback.
These elements of communication interact
and the process of communication starts.

26. Idea
Received
Message
Received
Idea
Sender
(TX)
Receiver
(RX)
Receiver
(RX)
Sender
(TX)
Feedback/
Response
Encoding Medium
Decoding
Message
Channel
1.3.1 The Process of Communication

27. 1.4 Significance of Communication
Communication is important to individuals, an organization and a
manager.
1.4.1 Communication and the Manager
a. Communication as managerial role
 According of Henry Mintzberg (1993: 32) managers have
three basic jobs:
i. to promote interpersonal unity (Interpersonal role);
ii. to collect and convey information (Informational role); and
iii. to make decisions (Decisional role);
b. Communication as managerial skill
 Communication skill is the basis for managerial duties and
responsibilities as managerial skills are:
i. Conceptual skill
ii. Interpersonal /human skill
iii. Technical skill

28. In general, communication is very important
for the manager as:
 It links the different functions of
management through effective and
efficient way.
 It links the organization's units
horizontally, vertically, and diagonally.
 It links the organization with the
external environment.

29. 1.4.2 Importance of Effective Communication for an
Organization
 The main significance of every business communication to
a given business organization is to enable the
organization obtain some result; that is, to
secure an action by the receiver.
 The sender expects the receiver to do something on
receiving the message: write a check, place an order,
approve an action, send some information, etc.
 To achieve this purpose, the language used must be direct,
plain, concise, and to the point.
 The style concentrates on drawing attention, arousing
interest or creating desire, developing conviction, and
inducing action.

30. 1.5 Objectives of Communication
Managers need to be effective communicators across
organizational levels whether the message is flowing
downward, upward, laterally (horizontally) or diagonally.
If they are successful in their communication they can
achieve various objectives as indicated in the following
pages.
1.5.1 Objectives of Downward communication
1. Information
2. Instruction
3. Request
4. Advice
5. Counseling
6. Warning and notice
7. Education and Training

31. 8. Persuasion: means making efforts to change or influence
the attitude and behavior of others. There are three
factors in persuasion:
i. The personal character and reputation of the persuader
must be respected and accepted by others;
ii. The emotional appeal made by the persuader either to
the physical needs, social needs or ego needs, and
iii. The logic of the presentation – show them how they will
benefit by accepting.
9. Appreciation of good efforts
10. Motivation: is providing people with a motive, an incentive,
an inner urge to make effort and do their best. Employees
can be motivated by
i. Listening to them and respecting their views;
ii. Ensuring that credit is given where it's due; and
iii. Avoiding criticism people when opposing their ideas.
11. Raising morale

32. 1.5.2 Objectives of Upward Communication
i. Reports
ii. Information
iii. Requests
iv. Appeals
v. Representations
vi. Demands
vii. Complaints

33. 8. Suggestion Systems (also called Suggestion Programs)
Effective systems appear to have the following
components
a. Appropriate monetary rewards based on the worth
of the suggestions.
b. Open management support for the program and
involvement of employees at all levels.
c. Respect for the value of employee contributions or
suggestions. Organizations that demonstrate a lack
of sincere interest in employee development often
fail to develop effective suggestions programs.
d. A customized program to meet the specific needs of
the organization and the individual employees.

34. 1.5.3 Objectives of Horizontal (Lateral) Communication
1. Information
2. Requests
3. Suggestions
4. Discussion
5.Persuasion
1.5.4 Objectives of Diagonal (Crosswise) Communication
1. Information
2. Requests
3. Suggestions
4. Discussion

35. 1.6 Barriers to Effective Communication
 There are natural and man-made factors that hinder
the process of effective communication.
 These barriers to effective communication are called
noise, and noise may take several forms.
 Noise may be caused by a technical problem such as
bad telephone connection, by a poor selection of
medium, or by the receiver's misinterpretation of the
message.
 Noise might be caused by the sender's poor speaking
or writing skills, or the receiver's poor listening or
reading skills, or simply too many competing sounds
in the work place. In addition, noise can occur
anywhere in the communication process.

36. 1.6.1 Physical (also known as external or mechanical)
i. Defects in the Channel: refer to the barriers beyond the
control of the parties engaged in communication. For
example, breakdown in the system of telephones, telegraph,
e-mail, postal, and noise of other interfering machines.
ii. Defects in the Organization and Communication System:
occur especially if the message is made to pass through
many channels or chains of command as there will be
loss of information because of the editing and judgment
included in between. Besides, information overload,
inappropriate time of communication, distance
between sender and receiver, an assistant's
blocking access to a manager or lack of access to
files, tapes, and so forth, also limit the exchange of
information.

37. 1.6.2 Semantic Barriers: refer to communication problems caused by
language problems.
 Using different languages
 Use of technical words (jargon),
 Slang, and
 Dialects
 Semantic bypassing
• A receiver may interpret the words used by the sender
differently from the way they were intended, causing semantic
by passing.
 For example, poorly written contracts that are open different
interpretations could cost organizations millions of dollars.
 Bypassing can also lead to unnecessary friction between a
supervisor and employees, resulting in lower productivity
and morale.
Example: Supervisor: When I said that I wanted this task
completed immediately, I meant now. This instant!
Employee: I thought you meant that you wanted it done
sometime today.

38. • Bypassing often occurs because individuals make the false
assumptions that words have only one usage or definition.
The word "fast", for example, can take on more meanings
than you might imagine as indicated below:
 A man is fast when he can run rapidly.
 But he is also fast when he is tied down and cannot run
at all.
 A friend is fast when she/he is loyal.
 A watch is fast when it is ahead of time.
 To be fast asleep is to be deep in sleep.
 To be fast by is to be near.
 To fast is to refrain from eating.
 Photographic film is fast when it is sensitive to light.
 But bacteria are fast when they are insensitive to
antiseptics.

39. 1.6.3 Different in Perception
People who have had different experiences or who come from
different cultural, social, or educational backgrounds tend to
view things differently. Some of the reasons for such
difference in perception or understanding include:
i. Abstracting: is a process of focusing attention on some
details and omitting others.
ii.Inference: is a statement that goes beyond fact. People infer
based on their experience.
iii. Hasty Generalization (slanting): occurs when selecting few
aspects of reality and making them representative of the
whole.
iv. Difference in Age: refers to the difference in perception and
experience among people due to their difference in age.
v. Faulty representation of facts: is the presentation of facts in
faulty or wrong ways that cause confusion and
misunderstanding in communication.

40. 1.6.4 Socio-psychological Barriers
Due to certain social as well as psychological reasons people may face a
problem in their attempt to communicate effectively. Some these reasons
are:
i. Source creditability: refers to the trust, confidence, and faith that
receivers have in the words and actions of the sender. If the source is
once identified by the society as untrustworthy, his/her mind to the
messages coming from the unfaithful source.
ii. Value Judgment: is caused by assigning an overall worth or value
to a message prior to receiving the entire message due to past
experience with sender and anticipated meaning of the message.
iii. Closed Mind: limited intellectual background, limited reading and
narrow interests cause a person's mind to be narrow. This limits
his/her understanding of human nature and makes him/her
incapable of receiving communication with sympathy.
iv. State of Health: if one's health is not at its best, it is better not to
be engaged in communication tasks. The person may not have
enough energy and good psychological make-up to follow what is
going on and his perception may be reduced.

41. v. Poor communication skills: lack of skill in writing and
speaking obviously prevents the sender from encoding his
ideas properly so as to get across his audience.
vi. Emotionality: if people are emotional, they tend to be
irrational. Emotional reactions like anger, love hate, fear, etc.
can influence how we understand other's messages, and how
others perceive our own messages.
vii. Defensiveness: is the major psychological barrier to effective
communication. Individuals become defensive when excessive
questioning or criticism or the perception of either threatens
their self-image.
Example:
Manager: You were late to work today.
Employee: I was only ten minutes late! I'm almost always on
time.
Manager: Can you tell me why you were late?
Employee: I had a bad morning. Give me a break!

42. viii.Status consciousness (Status Black): the title the sender has
and the kind of privilege and office he/she has could affect
communication. This is a major problem in upward
communication.
ix. Self-image: we do not tend to accept anything that goes
against our self-image or attitude to ourselves that we have
cultivated over the years.
x. Self-centered Attitudes: we tend to hear or see everything in
light to our opinions. We agree with those ideas that agree
with ours while disagreeing with those that do not go with
ours.
xi. Filtering: refers to the manipulation of information so that
the receiver perceives the information as positive or negative.
xii. Group Identification: we want to be identified with a group.
Thus, whatever idea works against our group may be rejected
although we may understand the reason behind it.

43. 1.6.5 Inappropriate Medium or Channel Barriers
 The types of media and channels used in a given
communication have their advantages and
disadvantages.
 In a business setting, unless one selects one
communication medium and channel over the
other on the basis of such factors as the
availability of feedback, the need for
documentation, the cost involved, the
chain of command, the number of
receivers, and the backgrounds of
receivers, the communication may face a great
problem.

44. 1.6.6 Overcoming Communication Barriers
The responsibility for overcoming barriers to communication
and ensuring the success of every communication activity falls
upon the management or the more senior, the better-trained per.
i. Reducing Physical Barriers
The external or physical barriers of defective channels and
faulty organizational systems are entirely the management's
responsibility within the organization.
The internal channels must be kept up-to-date.
Red tape, such as forms, procedures, protocol, and formalities
that interfere with employees' access to information,
management, or customers should be evaluated to make sure
that they promote communication and overall managerial
objectives and overall managerial objectives and goals.

45. ii. Overcoming Semantic Barriers
When communicating face to face, you can reduce semantic
bypassing in several ways:
First:
Try to be person-minded not word-mined.
Communication takes place between people, not
words. Always make an effort to understand what a
person is trying to convey rather than focusing on the
dictionary definition of a word.
Second:
Ask questions if the meaning of something is unclear
to you. Remember that the average word has 28
definitions, so there is plenty of room for error. Do not
be afraid to ask. People appreciate the fact that you
are interested enough- and money in the long run.

46. Third:
Be sensitive to contexts. Individual words
often derive their meaning from the words
surrounding them. Politicians, executives, and
celebrities who are quoted frequently in the
media complain that their words are ''taken
out of context'' and thus robbed of their true
meaning.

47. iii. Overcoming Difference in Perception Barriers
Even if you have not experienced exactly the same
things another person has, you can bridge the
experiential gap in communication with empathy.
 Empathy is the ability to place yourself in the
shoes of another person and understand things for
his or her point of view. Although no one can
achieve total empathy because we are all unique
individuals; the more experiences we are exposed
to, the broader our base will be for sharing and
understanding

48. iv. Dealing with Socio-psychological Barriers
There are two things that sender and receiver can do
to reduce one of the socio-psychological barriers,
defensiveness.
First:
The sender can learn how to give constructive
criticism. People are rarely defensive about
good news, but they bristle at discipline or
correction. If given properly, criticism can lead
to better understanding between parties,
without hurt feelings.

49. Second:
 To reduce defensiveness, the receiver should
learn to tolerate a difference of opinion.
Most arguments occur over subjective matters
that may have more than one "correct"
solution. People rarely argue over objective
matters that can be proved or disproved as
fact. Tolerances of different viewpoints can go a
long way toward reducing defensiveness.

50. v. Overcoming the Problems of Media and Channels
 Sometimes a combination of written and oral media will
improve communication effectiveness.
 For example, managers have found it useful to supplement
a telephone or informal conversation with a hand written
note or E-mail message to confirm or clarify what was
said.
 Conversely, memos and letters may be followed up with
telephone calls to amplify or gain personal feedback on the
message.
 The capability of combining and using different types of
media and channels together is becoming the norm of the
future.

51. UNIT TWO: LEVELS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION
 Communication can be categorized in many ways.
 One of the ways is to classify it in terms of its levels in
human interaction.
 This classification includes interpersonal, interpersonal,
public and organization communications.
2.1 Intrapersonal Communication
 Intrapersonal Communication: is the communication
that takes place within an individual. The basic features
individual's communication system:
i. Complex;
ii. Dynamic;
iii. Open;
iv. Purposive;
v. Information- processing; and
vi. Decision -making system.

52. The basic operations of the system are:
i. to convert raw data to information;
ii.to interpret and give meaning to that information; and
iii.to use such meaning as a basis for behavior.
 Intrapersonal communication is, for the most part,
neurophysiologic activity.
 It is also the level upon which an individual "talks to
himself or herself" and thus handles events, ideas, and
experiences.
 Intrapersonal communication is the base of operation for
all levels of communication.
 The patterns, rules, and skills one uses in interpersonal
and public communication are formed on the
intrapersonal communication level.

53. 2.1.1 Basic Elements of Intrapersonal Communication
The basic elements in the process of communication
within the individual include:
i. Receivers: the receivers with which we are most concerned
are the five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
ii.Information-processing Unit: consists of the central
nervous system, the brain, the hypothalamus, and the
spinal cord.
iii.Transmitters: are the faculties used in speaking, writing,
vocalizing, moving, gesturing, or posturing the means
where by message are sent.
 These three classes of elements, receivers, information
processor, and transmitters, function interdependently
to make intrapersonal communication possible.
 If any element is defective or inefficient in its function,
the quality of communication is corresponding lower
than it might be otherwise.

54.  The process of communication as carried out by the
individual's communication system is complex, and there
are both natural and acquired limitations upon its
efficiency.
 The information-processing subsystem, in particular, is
highly complex.
 This system-composed of the brain, the hypothalamus, the
spinal cord, and the entire central nervous system-
processes innumerable messages simultaneously.
 This system may be involved in receiving, interpreting, and
regulating numerous internal messages while at the same
time it is receiving, processing, and responding to
information from the outside environment.
 Perceiving, remembering, and thinking-these are among
the important processes carried out in the brain.

55. 2.2 Interpersonal Communication
 Interpersonal communication refers to the type of
communication in which two or more persons are
engaged directly in the overt and covert
(transmission and reception) of messages.
 If the sender of a message is unable to
communicate directly with another individual,
with each aware of the other as a unique person,
there is no interpersonal communication.
 Interpersonal communication includes dyadic and
small-group communications.

56. 2.2.1 Dyadic communication:
 It refers to the type of interpersonal communication in
which only two persons exchange ideas.
 It may be formal or informal and includes situations such
as two persons visiting over a cup of coffee, the job
interview, the conference between subordinates and
superior, or the telephone conversation with one's friend.
 In each of these, the two persons communicate directly
with each other.
 Each is specifically aware of the other as a person or
individual; each can send messages overtly to the other.

57. 2.2.2 Small-group Communication
 It refers to the type of interpersonal communication in
which three or more persons communicate.
 Like dyadic communication, it may be formal or
informal.
 The difference between small group communication and
dyadic communication lies in the number of
participants.
 The small group communication may be three persons
talking in the backyard, a committee of five persons
planning homecoming activities, or a meeting of any
problem-solving group.
 Due to the number of people, small-group communication
makes use of several senders and receivers.
 The massages of such communication are more
structured.

58.  There are two determinant factors that restrict the
maximum number of people who can take part in small
group communication:
i. The participants of the small-group communication
should recognize one another as a unique body
and be aware at least of the existence of all the persons
involved in the communication.
ii.All the participants in the communication should have
equivalent chance of taking turns of presenting
their ideas it others. It will then be up to them to use
their chance or share it with others.
 The essential element in both dyadic and small group
kinds of interpersonal communication is that of direct,
and person-to-person interaction.

59. 2.3 Public Communication
 Public communication, is characterized by the sending of
a message to a public.
 It includes speaker-audience and Mass communication.
2.3.1 Speaker-audience Communication
 It refers to the type of communication in which one
person sends a message for many persons who
predominantly play the role of the receiver.
 The public is an audience of several persons, and it is not
likely that one would know each person specifically as in
the case of the dyadic and small group situations.
 Moreover, in speaker-audience communication, the
audience functions primarily as receivers and responders.
 In public speaking situations, for example, members of
the audience may communicate with the speaker, but the
speaker does most, if not all, of the speaking.

60. 2.3.2 Mass communication
 Mass communication refers to the mass distribution of
identical copies of the same massage to persons or
receivers unknown to the sender and unknown to each
other in any sense of interaction.
 Mass communication goes beyond the limits of face-to-
face or any other personally mediated interaction.
 The mass media are television, radio, motion procures,
newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, etc.
 Mass communication is directed toward a relatively
large, heterogeneous, and anonymous audience.
 Mass communication may be characterized as public,
rapid, and transient.
 The communicator, or sender, in mass communication
usually works through a complex corporate
organization.

61. 2.4 Organizational Communication
Organizational communication includes all the three
(intrapersonal, interpersonal, and public) of
communication.
But the distinguishing character is that the communication
is form an organization.
The organization "acts like a person" with regard to
communication, even as a corporation acts like a person in
a legal sense.
The organization originates messages, owns messages, and
sends message to numerous receivers, including internal
and external public recipients.
For example, when Admas University admitted you, the
University was the organization admitting you-not the
person whose name appears on your letter or document of
admission.

62. An organization has internal and external communication.
2.4.1 External Business communication
i. Outward Communication
 All messages that go out of an organization to suppliers,
customers, banks, insurance companies, government
departments, the mass media and the general public are
outward communications.
 This may be in the form of letters, telephone calls,
telegrams, reports, advertisements, press handouts,
speeches, visits, etc.
 This has an important effect on public image and public
relations of an organization.
ii. Inward Communication
 Whatever communications that an organization
receives from outside are called inward
communications.
 They have to be registered, attended to, studied, acted
upon, replied to and stored.

63. 2.4.2 Internal Business Communication
 This is a communication within the organization, between
managers, supervisors and workers.
 The organization is generally cone-shaped with the highest
authority at the top and the multitude of workers making
the bottom.
 At higher levels there are an increasing number of chains
of communication coming together.
 It can be formal and informal.
 The formal is divided into vertical, horizontal/lateral and
diagonal/crosswise communication.

64.  Message that move up and down the authority lines are
called vertical communication and those that move among
persons of the same level are called horizontal/lateral
communication.
 Messages that move diagonally between individuals at
different level or positions are called diagonal/crosswise
communication.
i.Vertical Communication
 It is a communication between employees and managers
who are at different status.
 As the name itself implies massages flow both downward
and upward in the line of the hierarchy of the
organization vertically.
 So, this communication is classified into two parts as
downward and upward communications.

65. A. Downward Communication
 Messages that go from the higher authority levels to the
lower levels are downward communication.
 The common purpose of downward communication is
to give instructions and information.
 Since people at lower levels may not understand it
easily, downward communication should be simple
and carefully explained to avoid any
misunderstanding.
 It may be told in the form of down a chain of
command or to all concerned in a cluster.

66. Top
Top
A
B
C
D E
A
B
C
D
A
Cluster Approach
A Down in Chain of Command Approach
 If communication has to pass through many levels of authority on
its way down, there is a delay as well as distortion of the message
because of the editing and simplifying etc. Communication in a
cluster is faster and more effective than communication down in a
chain of command.

67. B. Upward Communication
 Message that go from subordinates to supervisors and to
higher levels are upward communication.
 The purpose is usually to give information and reports.
 Nowadays, upward communication is encouraged.
 Managers realize that employees who are listened to are
happier and work better.
 Anyone at any level of the organization might have some
good ideas and suggestions that might be helpful to the
organization.
There are, however, some barriers toward communication:
i. Subordinates may be shy and frightened to talk to
superiors.
ii. Superiors may not be willing to listen to their
subordinates.

68.  In order to minimize these problems, the following
upward channels are found in most organizations:
i. Regular reporting system;
ii. Periodical interviews;
iii. Suggestions scheme;
iv. Committees (like grievance committee, welfare
committee, counseling committee);
v. Open door policy;
vi. Informal gatherings;
vii.Review and feedback.

69. ii. Horizontal/Lateral Communication
 It is the communication that flows between
persons of equal status in an organization.
 It may be written or oral and the purpose is
simply to exchange information.
 The amount may be greater at higher levels of the
department than at lower ones.
 It facilitates decision-making. It is also used for
problem solving and co-coordinating task.

70. iii. Diagonal/Crosswise Communication
 Diagonal/crosswise communication is used for
functional authority.
 It is a communication between individuals at
different levels or positions.
 Some authorities are sliced away from another
department and given to staff managers.
 It is the least used channel of communication.
 Staff managers are those with authority to give
advice to the organization.

71. iv. The Grapevine
The grapevine refers to the type of informal organizational
communication network through which workers of a given
company share information outside the official channels of
communication.
 Rumors about impending layoffs or raises, gossip about
managers, and discussion of salaries travel through the
grapevine.
If employees feel that they do not receive enough
information about a situation from their supervisors,
communication through the grapevine tends to increase;
employees will cultivate other sources of information,
perhaps a friend in the human resource department.
One survey found that employees are more eager to believe
information gathered from the grapevine than information
presented through formal channels.

72. UNIT THREE: SELECTING APPROPRIATE
MEDIAAND CHANNELS
 We sometimes slip into the error of thinking that all
communication must be verbal, which is based on spoken
and written language.
 However, another code, the nonverbal code, a relatively
little studied but much used vehicle of communication does
exist.
 It includes the full range of human communication: tone
of voice, gestures, posture, movement, and other
signals that we call nonverbal communication.
 Many of the meanings generated in human encounters are
elicited by touch, glance, vocal nuance, gesture, or facial
expression.
 We gesture with our hands, raise our eyebrows, meet
someone else's eyes and look away, and shift positions in a
chair.

73. 3.1 Types of Communication Media
 Communication can take place using spoken or
written language or without using it (for instance,
body language, posters, sings, symbols etc.)
 However, many verbal expressions attest to the
importance of non-verbal communication, we say
"actions speak louder than words," or" one picture
is worth a thousand words."
 Whichever medium we use, our goal is to
communicate.
 Hence, we can divide the media we use into two,
verbal and non-verbal.

74. 3.1.1 Verbal Communication
 Every message is put into a code.
 The codes to which we direct most of our attention
are the spoken and written codes.
 Verbal signals carry only a small part of the
information that people exchange in everyday
interaction.
 In face-to-face communication, no more than 35%
of the social meaning is carried in the verbal
message.
 Verbal communication can be two types: oral and
written.

75. 3.1.1.1Written Communication
 Effective written communication is one of the most
important factors contributing to a successful business.
 According to some researches, business identity writing as
the most valued skill and 80 percent of all employees need to
improve.
 Effective communication is so important that companies
provide in-house communication training for their
employees, encourage workers to improve skills by referring
them to colleges or other local organizations, or conduct
joint programs with local schools.
 Despite the increased use of technology and electronic
means of communication, the most frequent type of
communication within and between businesses is a written
document whether it appears on a sheet of paper or on a
computer screen.

76.  Because of the time and resources needed to produce
correspondence and the impact of that correspondence,
corporations are naturally focusing on producing
correspondence that is thorough.
 Many executives still prefer communication through written
documents rather than other forms of communication
because the document can serve as a contract, facts will be
in writing, and the executive will not have to rely on
memory.
 A letter or memo is still one of the least expensive forms of
communication between a home office and its branches in
different states and countries.
 A letter or memo is still one of the least expensive forms of
communication between a home office and its branches in
different states and countries.
 A letter can also be written and read at the convenience of
the writer and reader.

77. The following are some example of written
communication:
•Letter
•Memo
•Circular
•Report
•Minutes
•Telegram,
•Telex
•Fax and so on.

78. 3.1.1.2 Oral Communication
 When communicating orally, language choices play a
vital role.
 Although we are often told that we should use clear
and precise language, most of us wouldn't know how
to go about it.
 Command to the language requires years of practice
and study.
 Since it is impossible to lay down strict rules that
govern the choice of language for all occasions and for
all circumstance, the discussion here is limited to three
important aspects of language choice: clarity,
energy, and vividness.

79. i. Clarity
 Whenever we try to communicate the language that
we use must be clear.
 Therefore, it would be very good if we could avoid the
use of jargon, difficult words, slang and the like in our
oral communication.
ii. Energy
 Language is active and direct.
 It expresses ideas in the simplest, liveliest, most
forceful way possible.
 Energetic language is one way of telling your listener,
"Hey look. This is important Listen to me!“

80. When there is energy in a communication, listeners
experience a feeling of excitement, urgency, and
forcefulness.
Energy, or the lack of it, can be communicated both
verbally and nonverbally.
A sense of urgency is communicated mainly by verbs-
the action words of the language.
Adjectives and adverbs slow the language
down.
Another way to add energy to language is to put
sentences in the active rather than in the passive
voice.
Language has also more energy when speaker avoids
tiredness.

81. iii. Vividness
 Vividness also comes from unique forms of speech.
 Some people would say that a person who talks too much is not
interesting at all.
 When we say that language is vivid, we often mean that
someone has found a new way of saying old things.
3.1.1.3 Difference between Oral and Written
Communications
i. Speed
 The main difference between the oral and written
communications is the time factor.
 Written communication is slower in preparation, in conveyance
(carrying or transmitting) and in perception (understanding).
 The time lag makes a difference to the feedback.
 The feedback in the written case is slower, whereas the facial
expression of the receiver gives immediate feedback to the
speaker in the case of oral communication.

82. ii. Possibility of Keeping Records
 When records are needed, written communication has an
advantage over oral communication.
 It is a documentary proof and legal evidence.
 Oral communication may be taped but the authenticity of the
voice can be doubted and the message can be edited and
distorted.
iii. Size
 A written message is usually shorter than oral message, which
might require an opening and closing remark.
 Greater precision is necessary in the case of written
communication, because the receiver cannot ask for
clarification on the spot.
 Oral communication, however, depends on body language to
transmit part of the message.

83. iv. Expense
 In the case of face-to-face communication, oral communication
appears to be cheaper than written communication. However,
when the communication requires extra channels like
telephone, written communication tends to be cheaper.
v. Degree of Formality
 In many cases, written massages are taken more seriously and
formally than oral messages.

84. 3.1.2 Nonverbal Communication
 Albert Mehrabian, a contemporary writer on non-verbal
communication, has determined form his research that as
much as 93% of communication is non-verbal.
 Nonverbal communication is any information we communicate
without using words.
 Thus, the way a person uses voice, body movement (for
example, eye contact, facial expression, gesture, and posture),
clothing and body appearance, space touch, and time are an
essential part of every message that he or she sends.
 Nonverbal communication can of different types. The most
widely known types of non-verbal communication include:

85. i. Paralanguage
 It is the way we say something. It includes such characteristic
as rate (speed of speaking), pitch (highness or lowness of tone),
volume (loudness) and quality (pleasant or unpleasant sound).
 We know form experience that a simple "Yes" may express
defiance resignation, acknowledgment, interest, enthusiasm, or
agreement depending on tone and emphasis.
 Most of us, at one time or many times, have remarked, "It
wasn't what he said but how he said it that made me angry!“
we were referring to the nonverbal vocal phenomena-
intonation emphasis, stress, and so forth.
 These vocal phenomena often referred to as paralanguage,
consist of vocal modifiers, vocal differentiators, vocal
identifiers, and a general category called voice quality.

86. ii. Sign Language
 Sign language includes all those forms of codification in which
words, numbers, and punctuation have been supplanted by
gestures.
 Examples range from the simple gesture of the tourist to the
complete sign language of the deaf.
 Other features of sign language, as well as posture, facial
expressions, and body movements are called action language
and will be discussed as a third category of nonverbal
communication.
 Sing language gestures are believed to have been used by
primitive man long before oral systems of language were
developed.
 Sign languages were developed in various cultures throughout
the world.

87. iii. Action Language
 Action language includes all gestures, posture, facial
expressions, and movements that are not used exclusively as
substitutes for words.
 Walking, for example, serves the function of giving mobility,
but it may also communicate.
 Similarly, eating can be action language. Eating rapidly, for
example, can communicate something about the person's
hunger, upbringing or emotional state.
 It is useful to divide action language into two categories:
 Expressive actions that are unintentional; and
 Purposive (Overt)actions those are intentional.
 Expressive actions are constantly adaptive responding to
feelings and needs of the moment, while
 Purposive (overt) actions are purposely communicative
and instrumental.
 Expressive actions result in the message that is "given
off," while purposive actions result in a given message.

88.  These two categories are not absolute; they do overlap at
times.
 Some expressive actions are noticeable, and some
communicative gestures become so habitual that we use
them almost unconsciously.
 It is common for a person to develop over a period of time
certain habituated movements and gesture that are used
regardless of whether they have any connection with the
verbal message or not. Most public officials and
entertainers have their idiosyncratic, habituated gestures,
and comedians who impersonate well-known public
figures often use these. For example, Perry Como is
impersonated by pulling on the ear, as are Bing Crosby
and Carol Burnett; and Richard Nixon is impersonated by
rolling the eyes and holding both hands over the head,
with fingers in double.

89. iv. Object Language
 Object language comprises the display of material things such
as art objects, clothes, the decoration of a room, hairstyle,
implements, machines, and the human body.
 Engagement and wedding rings are examples of objects of
communication.
 It is well known that clothing one wears and its style and
condition tell something about the person.
 We make inferences from the shine of the shoes, the cut of the
hair, and other material thing that reveal one's social sensitivity,
associations, preferences, and values.
 Personal clothing seems to be a major source of information.
 Clothing, jewelry, cosmetics represent deliberate choices and
are guides to personality.

90.  How one dresses, for example, shows sexual attraction and
sexual interest, group identification, status, identification of
role, and expression of one's self particularly between selection
of clothing and personally and status.
 Similarly the effect of wearing glasses has been shown to
produce favorable judgments of intelligence and
industriousness.

91. v. Distance and Personal Space
 Does Dad have his own chair in your home?
 Is the kitchen Mom's?
 Anthropologist Edward T. Hall has pointed out that cultures
establish meanings that are related to distance or space. In the
United States, the comfortable and appropriate distance to
stand for conversation is about an arm's length. The Brazilian,
as he talks with an American, moves in closer, the American is
apt to interpret that space violation as pushy, overbearing, or
aggressive.
 The American and the Arab are even less compatible in terms
of the space defined as appropriate for conversation.
 The Arab may stand quite close and look intently into the
'American's eyes as he talks.

92.  This space element and eye contact behavior may be associated
with sexual intimacy by the American, who consequently may
find it disturbing in a nonsexual context.
 Hall believes that the space or distance between persons in
communication is related to the nature of the messages. He has
identified eight distances that may be indicative of certain types
of message. They include:
 Very close (3 to 6 inches) – soft whisper, top secret, or
intimate information;
 Lose (8 to 12 inches) – audible whisper, very confidential
information;
 Near (12 to 20 inches) – soft voice, confidential;
 Neutral (20 to 36 inches) – soft voice, personal; information;
 Above Neutral (4 to 5 feet) – full voice, non-personal;
 Public distance (5 to 8 feet) full voice; and
 Stretching the limits of distance (up to 100 feet) hailing and
departure distance.

93.  We must keep distance according to our relationships.
a. Intimate distance (o-11/1') - for love relationship and when
we feel free to touch a person.
b. Personal distance (1 1/20 4') - for colleagues and close
friends.
c. Social distance (4'- 12') - for business transaction and
people we occasionally meet.
d. Public distance (12' 025‘) - between speaker an audiences
vi. Physical Environment
a. Color -it has impact on our emotions.
b. Lighting - different light magnitudes have implications.
c. Room size - Different room size for different occasions.
d. Odor- bad smell could distract the meeting.
e. Fourniture arrangement, noise, windows position, etc.

94. vii. Time
 As with space, so time is a type of nonverbal communication.
 Time talks.
 In many countries, punctuality communicates respect and
tardiness/lateness can be an insult.
 In other cultures, however, being on time is an insult.
 In many universities, a late message, be it term paper, business
report, or press release, is likely to have undesirable
consequences.
 Tardiness often communicates a low regard for the receiver
and for the message.
 Time is used to communicate role relationships and status.

95.  The "boss" may walk right into the subordinate's office, while
the subordinate knocks before entering the boss's office, or a
receptions or secretary calls the boss to gain entry for the
subordinate. Then the subordinate may have to "wait to see
the boss."
 It has been verified in studies made that the lower the status of
the visitors, the longer he waits before getting in to see the
person upon whom he is calling.
 If further evidence is needed to establish the fact time talks, re
member the telephone call you received at a very late hour,
2:30 am for example. You probably felt some sense of urgency
and importance, even danger perhaps. It was the element of
time that communicated the alarm.

96. viii. Tactile Communication
 Tactile communication is communication by touch.
 It is the earliest and most elementary mode of communication
of the human organism.
 Tactual sensitivity is the most primitive sensory process in
lower organisms.
 Many subhuman organisms orient themselves to the world by
their feelers or antennae. They literally feel their way through
life.
 Tactile communication is also the primary mode of orientation
to the world in organisms living underground, in fish and
probably in many reptiles.
 Tactile communication is of special significance to human
beings.

97.  It is the first form of communication experienced by the
infant, and it is known that these early tactile experiences are
crucial in the later development of symbolic recognition and
response.
 The infant's need for tactile contacts like nuzzling, cuddling,
patting, feeling-and his quick response to and acceptance of
tactile message are well-known facts.
 Parental care and love through infancy and childhood are
largely matters of tactile communication-tactual contacts that
comfort, reassure, express acceptance, give encouragement,
and build confidence in the child.
 Moreover, the kind of and duration of early tactile experience
wherein the infant or child can send and receive messages
have an effect on early personality development.

98.  For adults, tactile communication is a potent form of
nonverbal communication. Tactile communication has at least
four distinguishing characteristics:
1. Tactile experience is ordinarily limited to two persons;
2. Tactile experience is immediate and transitory, operating
only as long as contact is maintained;
3. Tactile communication is reciprocal
4. Tactile Communication takes places on the level of signals
(direct stimulation through the sense of touch) rather than
through symbolic mediation.
ix. Silence
 Silence can be used to communicate. It is usual that what is
not said is said is as important as or more important than
what is said. Silence can have messages such as disagreement,
violation, being indifferent etc.

99. 3.2 Verbal and Nonverbal Differences
 Verbal and nonverbal communication differs in five ways: continuity,
channel, the extent to which they can be controlled, their structure, and
how they are acquired.
i. Continuity: verbal communication begins and ends with words,
whereas non-verbal communication is continues
ii. Channel: verbal communication requires a single channel, words,
whereas non-verbal communication uses several channels.
iii. Control: whereas verbal communication is under our control because
we can choose our words, non-verbal communication is under our
control only part of the time.
iv. Structure: verbal communication is structured. It follows formal rules
of grammar. Because so much of non-verbal communication occurs
unconsciously, however, there is no planned sequence.
v. Acquisition: Many of the formal rules for verbal communication are
taught in a structured, formal environment such as a school. In
contrast, much of non-verbal communication is not formally taught;
we pick it up through imitating others.

100. 3.3 Factors in Selecting Appropriate Media
i. Speed: A letter is slower than the telephone
ii. Accuracy: If the phone line is bad, a letter becomes more
accurate
iii. Impression: An impression of urgency is created by a
telegram, though the phone is faster.
iv. Circumstances: In the absence of phones, we may be forced
to use letters.
v. Safety: If the communication is confidential, then safety
becomes an important factor. In such cases, the phone and
the telegram are not confidential enough.
vi. Expense: The expense incurred on the choice of
communication must be justifiable.
vii. Feedback (fast against delayed feedback): if fast feedback
is needed oral communication will be our choice.

101. UNIT FOUR: WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS IN BUSINESS
SITUATIONS
4.1 Business Letter Writing
 Of all forms of written communication letters are the
most common, numerous, and personal.
 With the growth of commerce and industry the
usefulness of letters has increased.
 A letter is really a piece of conversion by post.
 Letters may be written to maintain personal
relationship or conduct business.
 Unlike personal letters, the aim of business letters is to
achieve a definite purpose, such as, selling a product,
making an inquiry, seeking information or advice,
mollifying the injured feelings of a customer, creating
goodwill, etc.

102. 4.1.1Principles of Business Letter Writing
There are about six principles of good letter writing. These are:
i. Being Courteous and Considerate
 It pays to be polite in business even when replying to an
angry letter.
 If the person you are replying to is rude, be especially
courteous.
 If he is middle headed, be especially lucid. If he is pig-
headed, be patient.
 If he is helpful, be appreciative.
 If he convicts you of mistake, acknowledge freely and
even with gratitude.

103. There are many ways of being courteous or polite. Some of them
include:
a. Salutation or Greeting
 It is an important custom to start and end a letter with
an opening and closing salutation and complimentary
closing.
 Some of these salutation and complimentary closings
include:
Salutations Complimentary Closings
Dear sir/madam Yours Sincerely
Sir/madam Faithfully Yours
Mr. Mrs. Dr. ... Yours Obediently etc.

104. b. Thanks Giving
 One of the ways of reflecting the courtesy we have to
others is being grateful for what they have done to us.
 The expressions used for such purpose include:
Many thanks for... We are really grateful for...
Thanks very much for... We appreciate your...
c. Apology
 When things go wrong, when mistakes are committed it
is of paramount significance to ask for forgiveness with
the help of such phrases as:
We are really sorry for...
Please forgive us for...
Please accept our sincere apology...
Sorry for the mistake we have committed...

105. d. Formal Presentation of Ideas
 Instead of directly sending ideas it is better if the ideas
are presented formally with phrases that clearly depict
politeness.
 Some of the phrases used for such purpose are:
We are glad to note that…
You will be pleased to know…
Please be informed that...
It is with due respect that we inform you about...
e. Giving Particular Attention (Consideration)
 Consideration for the reader’s interests, needs and
desires is also known as the ‘you attitude’ in the
business world.
 In doing so, we shall be following the old principle of ‘I
↔You’ communication, instead of a crowd approach.

106. Crowd –approach
 We are pleased when we receive such suggestions
from our customers.
 This book will help the readers in writing good
English.
 We feel sorry when we find that our customers are not
satisfied with our merchandise
You- approach
 We are grateful for the suggestions you have made.
 This book will help you in writing good English.
 We are sorry that you are satisfied with the electric
kettle you bought from us.

107. ii. Being Direct and Concise
 Transmission of maximum information by using a
minimum of word should be your aim in letter
writing.
 Avoid unnecessary details and roundabout
expressions and come to the point directly.
 Do not forget that a letter is a means of contract
between two persons.
 When you meet a person after greeting him, you
straightaway come to the point. Adopt the same
approach when you write a letter.

108. iii. Avoiding Verbosity
 A study of business correspondence reveals that
there should not be any deadwood and verbosity
in the letter we write.
 Often phrases and clauses are used without
thought.
 Some such expressions and their suitable
substitutes are given below:

109. Verbose Expressions Direct and Concise
At all times Always
As per your instructions As instructed
At the time of writing At present; Now
Attached herewith Attached
By reason of the fact that Because
For the month of July For July
For the purpose of For
In a satisfactory manner Satisfactory
In compliance with your request As requested
In early course Soon
In view of the fact that Because or since
In the case of If
In the majority of instances Usually
In point of fact In fact

110. iv. Avoiding Participial Endings
 Participial endings such as given below should also be
avoided, as they are trite expressions, which hardly
convey any meaning:
 Assuring you of our prompt service always…
 Trusting you will find this information satisfactory…
 Hoping to hear from you at your earliest convenience…
v. Using Positive and Direct Statements
 It is more polite to directly state the information you
need or the action you require than suggest it by a
negative statement. So, it is better to replace your
negative and roundabout expressions with positive and
direct statements as indicated below:

111. No. Negative and Roundabout
Expression
Positive and Direct
Expression
1. You failed to tell us… Please let us know...
2. We cannot help you unless... We shall be pleased
to help you if...
3. We cannot help you with... We suggest that you...
4. We have not heard from you. We should appreciate
hearing from you.
5. You have not cared to pay
attention to our complaint
Please look in to our
complaint

112. vi. Being Clear and Precise
 A simple expression and clear thinking are the two most
important virtues of effective writing.
 Whatever be your business or profession you should cultivate
a clear and plain style. The reader should have no difficulty in
understanding what you mean.
 The following practical hints could help:
 Before expressing a thought on paper, roll it in
your mind so that it crystallizes and is horn of all
ambiguities. Clear thinking and clear writing go
together.
 Choose short, common and concrete words. Avoid
jargon and slang. Every word you employ should
help you in conveying the meaning you have in
mind.

113.  Arrange you words well. Put words or phrases
carrying the desired emphasis in the beginning
without, of course, breaking the rules of sentence
construction.
 Do not tire the reader with long and involved
sentences.
 A business letter contains only one main idea or
thought or one piece of information.
 However, if your letter deals with a number of
points, express each of these in small and distinct
a paragraph.
 Long paragraphs will bore the reader in to
skimming through you letter.

114. 4.1.2 Planning Business Letters
 Planning is important in all aspects of life; and letter
writing is no exception.
 Remember that you letter is going to be your
organization’s contact with the outside world.
 The letter should be carefully planned to add
freshness and grace.
 There are three kinds of letters:
a. Letters of Initiation: the letters written to initiate
a communication that has never existed before
between two parties;
b. Reply Letters: the letters written in reply to
another;
c. Follow-up Letters: the letters written to follow
up some communication (letter, memorandum,
telephonic or telegraphic message, etc.)

115.  So, if you’re initiating the correspondence,
your plan should take into account the
following two factors:
 Your letter must immediately arouse the
reader’s interest in what you say;
 It should mention clearly what action you
wish him to take.
 In planning reply letters, every point raised by
the correspondent should be dealt with.
 If you wish to say something entirely new and
it is unconnected with the points raised by
the correspondent, it’s better to write another
letter.

116.  Follow-up letters are of two types. These are
the letters written:
 To confirm a telephonic, telegraphic, or an
oral message; and
 To remind the correspondent about
something on which he has to take action.
 The first type is simple and needs no
special treatment.
 The second type should be written with
great tact and courtesy for no one likes to
be told that he is lazy.

117.  In general, the following five steps would help a lot to
plan business letters:
i. Setting Aside Specific Time
 The very first thing most executives do in the
morning is to look at the day’s mail. So the first hour
in the morning is perhaps most suitable for writing
letters. Planning requires concentration and at that
time you will be able to work uninterruptedly and with
a fresh mind.
ii. Identifying the Purpose of the Letter
 Ask yourself, ‘what is the main purpose of this
letter?’ put in your letter as early as possible that
material which will achieve it. For example, if your
letter is in reply to an inquiry, write in the very
beginning what your correspondent is most eager to
know:

118. iii. Gathering Relevant Information
 You have to get all the necessary details and all kinds of
information before you start your letter
iv. Arranging the Material in a Logical Order
 You can draw an outline. If your letter is a reply letter, you
can jot down points on the margin of the original letter. If
the letter is complex, you can have a draft.
v. Selecting the Right Tone
 Make sure that your letter possesses the qualities discussed
earlier. Be courteous and tactful/

119. 4.1.3 Structure and Layout of Letters
The appearance of a business letter is also important. It ought to have
necessary elements and should be typed neatly on quality paper.
i. Elements of the Structure of a Business Letter
A business letter might have the following 14 elements of structure:
1. Heading
2. Date
3. Reference
4. Inside address
5. Attention line
6. Salutation
7. Subject
8. Body
9. Complimentary close
10. Signature
11. Carbon/Circulation Copy
12. Identification marks
13. Enclosure
14. Post Script

120.  Heading
 Date Line: _______________
 Reference Number: _________________
 Inside Address: ___________________
 Attention Line:
 Salutation: __________________
 Subject Line: ________________________________
 Body:
 Complimentary Close: ______________
 Signature: ____________
 Carbon/Circulation Copy: __________________
 Identification Marks: _________
 Enclosure: __________________
 Post Script: ______________________________________________________

121. i. Heading: most business organizations use printed letterheads
for correspondence. The letterhead contains the name, the
address, the telephone number and the telegraphic address, if
any. Unless it is clear from the name of the organization itself,
the kind of business carried on is sometimes indicated.
ii. Date Line: some letterheads contain a printed line indicating
where the date should be typed. In other, the typist chooses
the right place for it. It should be typed two spaces below the
last line of the letterhead.
iii. Reference: if yours is a reply letter, give the correspondent’s
reference number against the first and your reference
number against the second line.
iv. Inside Address: the full address of the person or
organization you are addressing should be written two spaces
below the date and two spaces above the attention line, or if
there is no attention line, two spaces above the salutation in
the left margin.

122. v. Attention Line: to ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letter that is
addressed to a firm or company is marked to a particular officer (either
by designation or name) in the organization. This is done by writing an
attention line two spaces below the inside address and two spaces above
the salutation. This line is generally underlined:
Attention: The Sales manage
Attention: Mr. Thomas Berkley
vi. Salutation: the salutation in a letter is like greeting a person when you
meet him. It is placed two spaces below the attention line or if there is no
such line, two spaces below the inside address.
The choice of salutation depends upon the personal relationship between
the writer and the reader, and on the form of the inside address. If you
are addressing a firm, a company, a board, a club, a society, an
association, an agency or a post box or newspaper box number use ‘ Dear
Sirs.’ While writing to an officer by designation, write ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear
Madam’ as the case may be. You can also use ‘Gentlemen’ for ‘Dear Sirs.
If you write a letter to an officer by name the salutation will be ‘dear Mr.’
‘ Dear Dr. ‘. Dear Ms. Etc followed by his or her last name

123. vii. Subject Line: the purpose of the subject line is to let the
reader know immediately what the message is about. Like
attention and reference lines, it saves time.
Subject: supply of packing boxes
viii. Body: the main purpose of a letter is to convey a message
and the main purpose of the message is to produce a
suitable response in the reader. This is done mainly
through the body of the letter.
ix. Complimentary close:
The complimentary close is a courteous, Leave-taking, a polite
way of ending a letter. It’s typed tow spaces below the last line of
the body of the letter. The close must agree with the salutation as
shown below:

124. The Salutation The Complimentary Close
Sir,
Madam,
Yours Faithfully,
or
Yours Obediently,
or
Yours Respectfully,
Dear Sir/s,
Dear Madam/s,
Ladies,
Gentlemen ,
Yours Faithfully,
or
Yours Truly,
Dear Mr. Smith
Dear Dr. Smith
Dear Ms. Smith
Dear Miss Smith
My Dear Smith
Yours Sincerely,
Dear Member,
Dear customer,
Dear reader,
Dear subscriber,
Yours Sincerely,

125. x. Signature:
the signature is the signed name of the writer. It is placed below
the complimentary close. The name of the writer is generally
typed four spaces below the closing line, providing enough space
for the signature. A signature should be readable, but in case it is
not readable, it is permissible to print the name underneath with
designation. Ladies may use "Miss" or "Mrs." in bracket. When
an employee signs a business letter on behalf of his employer, he
puts the letters P. P. (Latin Per Pro, which means on behalf of)
before the name of the firm and writes his own initial beneath.
xi. Carbon/Circulation Copy:
It is used to list the names of the offices to which the same copy of
a letter sent to another party is copied.

126. xii. Identification Marks:
 These marks are put in the left margin to identify the typist of
the letter, one or two spaces below the signature. Usually the
initials of the officer who dictated the letter are put first.
 The identification marks may be put in either of the following
ways:
TRM/LG
TRM: LG
LG
lg.
The last two marks have only one set of initials. In such case it is
assumed that they are of the typist since the name of the officer
who dictated the letter is already there in the signature.

127. xiii. Enclosure:
 If there is anything attached to the letter, it must be
indicated against the enclosure line that is typed two
spaces below the identification marks generally the
abbreviated from encl. is typed against which the number
of enclosure is indicated.
 Encl. 2
 If, however, the documents attached are important they
are specified:
Encl. 1. Agreement dated 1 September 1992 (3 pages)
2. Cheque no. P4637 of 4 September 1992 (1 page)
xiv. Post Script:
 It refers to the part in which extra messages that are
added at the end of the letter are put.

128. 4.1.4 Styles of Business Letters
Of the various business letter formats or styles, the ones discussed
below are the most commonly observed.
1. Block Style:
 In this style the date line, reference number, the
complimentary close, and the signature are aligned with the
right margin all other parts except the letter head are set flush
left.
 Double spacing indicates divisions between the parts and
between the paragraphs of the body of the letter where as
there is single spacing within each part and paragraph.
 This style saves stenographic time in as much as most of the
parts and all the paragraphs are aligned with the left margin
and much time is not lost in indentation.
 In it the mixed punctuation is used. . (Please see the separate
example)

129. 2. Complete-block (full block) Style
All parts of the letter, except the printed letter head are
aligned with the left margin. A letter in this form saves more
time because indentation is not required for any part. But
some correspondents do not like it because it appears
imbalance and heavy on the left side. . (Please see the
separate example)
3. Semi block Style
It is like the block style except that the paragraphs of the
letter are indented. Those who use it say that it is easier to
read paragraphs that begin with an indented line because
one is used to seeing this style in this style. . (Please see
the separate example)

130. 4. Hanging-indented Style
It is like the block style except that the first line of each
paragraph is aligned with the left margin where as all
other lines in each paragraph are indented four or five
spaces.
Its appearance is unusual and may perhaps catch
attention quickly but this fact could be disadvantage as
well.
It may distract the reader by focusing his/her attention on
the form rather than the message of the letter.
Therefore, this style never got popular in the world of
business. In it the mixed punctuation is used. . (Please
see the separate example)

131. 4.2. Memorandum (Memo)
A memorandum (plural: memoranda) is a short piece of
writing generally used by the officers of an organization for
communicating among themselves.
 That is why it is also called interoffice communication.
 The main purpose of memorandum (memo for short) is
to:
 keep record
 convey information and decisions
 make short requests
 Some organizations use the memo form for short
reports too – reports in which an officer supplies
certain data to another officer to enable him to take a
decision.
.

132.  Occasionally such a memo may also contain an
analysis of data and the opinion and
recommendations of the officer sending it.
 Such memo (memo for report) is written in easy and
understandable language.
 Its style is like that of reports:
 objective,
 matter-of-fact, and
 Lucid (no attempt is made to make an emotional
appeal to the reader or to create a psychological
impact on him/her)
 Plain and direct statements of facts are all that are
required.
.

133.  A memo plays a very useful role in an organization.
 It ensures quick and smooth flow of information in
all directions.
 It also enables officers to maintain good business
relationships.
 A memo will come to your aid when you wish
coming into personal contact with certain
colleagues.
.

134.  Another useful function of a memo is to establish
accountability.
 Since it is record of facts and decisions, you can
turn to it in future if there is a need to find our who
went wrong and t what stage.
 Some organizations insist that even small events
and requests, telephone conversations on official
matters, etc. should be recorded in the form of
memos.
 Many organizations use printed memo forms.
 It takes comparatively less time to write a memo
since it does not contain several details that a letter
has.
.

135.  The following essential items of information must
be given in a memo:
 Designation of the receiver;
 Designation of the sender;
 Reference;
 Date; and
 Subject
 In printed forms, the name of the organization or
the department concerned is written on the top.
 If copies of a memo are sent to other officers, an
indication (cc) is at the bottom as in case of letters.
(Please see the separate example)
.

136. 4.3 Meeting-based Communications
 In addition to Business Letters. there are also other
means of written communication in an office
situation, especially while conducting meetings.
 Some of them include:
i. Notice,
ii. Agenda, and
iii. Minutes.
.

137. 4.3.1 Notices
 Usually the rules of procedure of every organization
clearly state the notice period required for calling a
meeting both general body meetings and meetings
of similar groups such as governing body,
executive committee, finance committee, etc.
 You should ensure that the notice is circulated to
members within this time.
 If a body has no such prescribed rules, see that the
notice reaches members within reasonable time
before the meeting.
.

138.  The notice must be sent to all those who have a
right to attend, that is, to all member in the case of a
general body meeting and to all members of the
group (committee, board of directors, etc.) in the
case of a group meeting.
 The day, date, time and place of the meeting and the
business to be transacted, if finally decided, should
be mentioned in the notice.
 The items of business may be mentioned in the
notice itself if their number is small, otherwise they
should be listed in a separate shell and attached to
the notice.
(Please see the separate example)
.

139. 4.3.2 Agenda
 Though the word agenda is the plural of agendum,
it is commonly used as a singular form.
 Agenda is an official list of things to be done or
dealt with at a particular meeting.
 The secretary in consultation with the chairperson
draws it up.
 At the meeting the business is normally transacted
in the order in which it is listed in the agenda.
.

140.  When the agenda is given as an annexure (annex)
to a notice or circulated separately it contains the
following elements:
 Name of the organization/group;
 Date of circulation;
 Day, date, and time of the meeting;
 Place of the meeting;
 Program of business to be transacted;
 Background papers or information, if any; and
 Signature of the secretary.
 If the agenda forms part of the notice, only the
business to be transacted is indicated because
other details will already be there in the notice.
.

141.  Generally, the first item on every agenda is
confirmation of the minutes of the previous
meeting, and the last item any other matter with the
permission of the chairman.
 Other items are usually arranged in their order of
importance and routine matter put towards the end.
 Each item is numbered.
 If the meeting is one of a series, each item may bear
the number of the meeting also as shown below:
 11.01
 11.02
 11.03 and so on
.

142.  The practice in some organizations is to indicate
also the time when each item will be taken up at the
meeting as shown below:
A.M.
 9.00: minutes of the previous meeting
 9.10: purchase of a new projector
 9.30: appointment of an assistant secretary
 9.45: date of the annual meeting
 1:00: any other matter that arises
 This helps the group to keep to the schedule and to
cut down meaningless and irrelevant discussions.
 Further, the members and get an idea of how much
time they will have to spend at the meeting.
. (Please see the separate example)
.

143. 4.3.3 Minutes
 Minutes are the official records of discussions held
and decisions taken at a meeting.
 The secretary of the organizational unit that
sponsors or holds the meeting generally writes
minutes.
 Keeping minutes of the meetings of the board of
directors, committees of the directors and general
body of joint-stock company is a legal requirement,
but other organizations also follow this practice.
 Minutes serve as an aid to memory and provide a
basis for action.
.

144.  Minutes usually contain:
 Concussions/agreement reached;
 Recommendations made; and
 Tasks assigned to individual members and
group.
 Minutes are not a verbatim record of the
proceedings of a meeting.
 The emotions and feelings, if any, expressed by
members during the course of discussion are not
recorded.
 A clear, concise, accurate and well-organized
summary of the business transacted is all that is
required.
 Minutes are a special type of summary of what
happened at a meeting.
.

145.  When you are writing the minutes of a meeting, it is
better if you follow the procedures given below:
 Take down notes carefully at the meeting;
 Prepare a draft of the minutes;
 Before giving a final shape, show them to the
chairperson;
 If you have any doubt regarding a statement or
fact, check it up with some other members to
ensure accuracy.
 To facilitate reference, give each item a heading and
a number.
 When a majority approves a proposal or a
resolution, you may give the name of the proposer
and the seconder and also record the numbers of
votes cast for and against it.
.

146.  In many organizations, the practice differs; and a
resolution or proposal that was approved is
recorded; the names of the proposer and seconder
are not mentioned.
 Minutes contain the following elements”
 the names of the organizational unit e.g. finance
committee, board of governors etc.;
 the date, time and place of the meeting;
 the number of the meeting if it is in a series, e.g.
fifth meeting of the board of directors;
 name of the chairman of the meeting;
 names of members present, of those who could
attend, and those who attended by special
invitations;
 record of transactions; and
 signature of the secretary and the chairman.
.

147.  The minutes become final only when they have
been read at the next meeting, approved by the
members and signed by the chairman.
 Often beforehand and then at the next meeting the
chairperson confirms them after ascertaining that
members have no amendments to suggest.
 If a member suggests an amendment, the chairman
signs the minutes after seeking the approval of the
members present at the meeting.
(Please see the separate example)
.

148. 4.4 Preparing Job Application Letter and Curriculum
Vitae (CV)
4.4.1 Writing a Job Application Letter
•There are two fundamentally different job application
letters:
i. Invited (Solicited): is written in response to a posted
job notice or referral. In the invited situation, you
should:
• reference the job you are applying for and the job
source in the opening paragraph
• address your qualification for that job in
subsequent paragraphs.

149. ii. Prospective (Unsolicited): is written to a
company without any knowledge of a specific
job opportunity. In the prospective case, you
may not be as specific and may have to sell
your qualification in a more general fashion.
• You should reference your preparation in
the opening paragraph
•Address in subsequent paragraphs how the
prospective employer can benefit from your
qualification.

150. “According to your May 28, 2016 Reporter newspaper
advertisement for a production supervisor, my education,
experience and career interests qualify me for that position. My
research on Fantasy International has proven that you are a
true leader in your filed, with a reputation for qualify that is
second to none, and I believe I can make a contribution.
Your position requires an individual with experience, excellent
communication skills, and a high degree of enthusiasm and
self-motivation. As shown on the enclosed resume, my
business management curriculum included courses and
activates that taught me a great deal about leadership,
organization and problem solving.
I would appreciate a personal interview at your convenience,
during which we can discuss the position in greater detail.
Please call me at 252-633882497 to arrange a meeting.”
Sample Solicited Letter

151. “Your assistant, Mr. Asad Ibrahim suggested that I apply for the opening in
your payroll department for a part-time clerk. Based on my experience,
education, and attitude, I believe I fit the profile of Virginia Bluefield
employees.
Because I have prepared payroll and payroll tax reports for several years, I
would require little or no training to work in your payroll department. As my
3.95 grade point average out of four indicates, I am easy to train, and I
learn quickly.
As you may note on my résumé, my extensive volunteer work is in line with
the attitude of Blue Nile Corporation. I should fit in well with the culture of
your company.
Please call me (252-633-882497) to arrange an interview at a time
convenient to you so we can discuss ways I could best serve Blue Nile
Corporation.”
Sample Solicited Letter

152. 4.4.2 Preparing the Right Résumé
Components
1.Career Objectives: a concise
statement including the type of work
you want to do and the type of
organization you want to work for.
2.Education: listing of your formal
education. Your college education is
the most important element of your
resume.
3.Work Experience: most, if not all, of
your work experience.

153. 4. Personal Attributes: name, address, telephone number,
age, height, weight, health conditions, disabilities, and
religious affiliation.
5. Other Categories: military experience, honors,
organizational memberships, languages, travel, publications,
additional training.
6. References: identify individuals who can substantiate your
claims.

154. 1. Explain Elements of Communication with
Communication Process in Detail.
2. Discuss Semantic Barriers in detail with relevant
examples
3. Discuss Intrapersonal Communication with examples
4. Discuss Interpersonal Communication with examples
5. Discuss Mass Communication with examples
6. Discuss Organizational Communication with examples
7. Discuss Verbal Communication together with the
advantages and disadvantages.
8. Discuss Non-verbal Communication together with the
advantages and disadvantages
.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

155. 9. Discuss Socio-psychological Barriers with
their respective examples.
10. What are the Basic Principles of Business Letter
Writing, explain each of them in detail.
11. Discuss the Elements of Business letters with
appropriate examples
12. Discuss Styles (Formats) of Business letters in
detail with corresponding examples
13. Discuss Types of Business Letters with
examples.
14. Discuss Notice (for meetings), Agenda and
Minutes with relevant examples.
15. Discuss types of Business Reports.
.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

156. UNIT FIVE: BUSINESS REPORT WRITING
5.1 Definition and Characteristics of Reports
 The word “report” is derived from the Latin term
“reportare” which means to ''carry back''
re= back
portare= to carry
Therefore. a report is a description of an event
carried back to someone who was not present on
the scene.
In a broad sense, many memoranda, letters and news
items are reports.

157.  e.g. When an instructor prepares a list of absent
students or an analysis of an examination
result, or when a technician fills in a form the
readings taken from a measurement
instrument, he/she is writing a report.
 But the types of reports we are interested in are those
that executives, administrators and higher experts have
to write as part of their duty.
 These relate either to the work they have done or to the
activities of the organizations they belong to.
 Such reports are the result of careful investigation, sound
thinking, logical organization, and clear writing. They
are also presented in a conventional form sanctioned by
long and varied experience.

158.  Definition of Report
 A number of writers have made an attempt to answer the
question “What is a report”?
A. General Definitions
Bruce Cooper defines report, as:
“In a very general sense a report is an account of something.
It is usually an answer to a questions or a demand from some
other person for information.”
C.A. Brown defines report, as
 “A report is a communication from someone who has
information, to someone who wants to use that information.”

159. B. SPECIFIC DEFINITIONS
Philip S. Atkinson and Helen Reynolds write of a
report as:
“A formal report presents in organized form the
information that has been requested by an
authorized person.”
John Mitchell says,
 “A technical report is a written statement of the facts
of a situation, project, process or test; how these
facts were ascertained; their significance; the
conclusions that have been drawn from them; the
recommendations that are being made.

160.  A report is a formal statement of facts or
information or an account of something.
 It is presented in a conventional form.
 It is written for a specific audience
 It includes information about the procedure of
collecting data and the significance of such data.
 It often includes conclusion and
recommendations.
From the above definitions it is possible to draw
the following essential points:

161. A technical (scientific) report is a formal
communication written for a specific
purpose; it includes a description of
procedures followed for collection and
analysis of data, their significance, the
conclusions drawn from them, and
recommendations, if required.
Keeping in view the above points we may define a
technical report as follows:

162. 5.2 Importance of Reports
A report can serve various purposes of which the following can be
taken as example:
For an organization:
 It helps an industry or government to make important decisions
in business on the basis of information presented or
recommendations made in reports.
 Preparation of reports as activity enables an organization to
improve its working through an analysis of its own processes of
production, distribution etc. and comparison with other similar
organizations.

163.  The skill of writing a report is as necessary as good
equipment and quality raw materials for running
an industry or a business efficiently as it helps an
executive perform his functions of planning and
evaluating men and material resources efficiently.
 Report writing has intrinsic value. It trains the
writer in planned and ordinarily procedures and
logical presentation of ideas and information. It
develops the power of discrimination, organization,
judgment and communication.
For the Managers/writers

164. 5.3 Types of Reports
There are many ways through which reports can be classified.
The predominant way of classifying reports is by taking the
points below into account:
1. By their mode (medium) of presentation (e.g. oral and
written);
2. By their level of formality (e.g. formal and informal);
3. By their degree of analysis (e.g. Informational and
interpretative);
4. By the interval in which they are produced (e. g. routine).

165. The tree diagram below summarizes the various types
of reports that have been classified in all of the
mentioned approaches:

166.  Oral Report: is a piece of face-to-face communication
about something seen or observed. Unless tape-
recorded, it is as ephemeral/temporary as any other
oral communication. Though it saves the reporter’s
time, it is more time consuming for the receiver, as he
has to listen to every word of the report.
 Written Report: is relatively accurate and permanent.
In certain cases the reader may just skim through it,
or read the abstract or the conclusions or
recommendations only. It can be referred to again and
again and is by its very nature more formal than an
oral report.

167.  Formal Reports: vary a great deal according to their
purpose and contents and different organizations have
different ways of classifying them.
 Some classify them according to their source of frequency
of appearance, others by their length or degree of formality
or physical form. We may for our purposes classify these
reports into the following tow broad categories and a sub-
category that corresponds with the first two in various
contexts. These are:
1. Informational Reports
2. Interpretative Reports
3. Routine Reports

168.  Informational Report: contains only the data collected
or the fact observed in an organized form. It represents the
situation as it is and not as it should be. It does not contain
any conclusions or recommendations. It is useful because it
presents relevant data put together in a form in which it is
required by the management to take decisions.
 Interpretative Report: like an informational report,
contains facts but it also includes an evaluation or
interpretation or analysis of data and the reporter’s
conclusions. It may also have recommendations for action.
An interpretative report that consists principally of
recommendations is also called a recommendation or
recommendatory report.

169. Routine Reports: are some reports that are
written in a prescribed form. All that the reporter
writer has to do is to put a tick mark against
certain items listed in the form or write very brief
remarks against them.
 These reports are written usually for recording
routine matters at regular intervals, e.g. periodic
reports on the progress of projects, reports on
inspection of equipment, confidential reports on
employees’ performance, etc.
 These reports are formal and contain information
and sometimes recommendations.

170.  Some of the types of routine reports include:
1.Progress Reports
 When a long-term project or work is under taken, the
administration keeps itself informed through progress
reports.
 The project may be the construction of a bridge or building,
the layout of a residential colony, the installation of
equipment in a factory, or the investigation of some problem.
 When government departments give work on contact they
insist on such reports from contractors. These enable the
government to know whether the work is progressing
according to schedule.
 The frequency of progress reports depends on the practice
followed in an organization.
 They may be written and circulated at the completion of a
stage of work. If they are prepared at regular intervals, they
are called periodic reports.

171.  The guideline for preparation of such reports is
specified by each organization but generally they
contain the following information:
 Name of the work or project;
 Total work to be completed;
 Date;
 Work completed to date;
 Work to be completed;
 Possible date for completion;
 Remarks, if any;
 Signature and designation of the reporting officer

172. 2. Inspection Reports
Inspection reports are of two types:
 The first one is the report that incorporates the result
of the inspection of a piece of equipment to ascertain
whether it is functioning properly or requires any
repairs or replacement. This may be done as a matter
of routine or a receipt of a complaint.
 The second type is the report that indicates the
result of inspection of a product as a part of quality
control. Most manufacturing organizations have a
quality every product with a view to ensuring that it
fulfils.

173. 3. Inventory Reports
 It is customary for every organization to take stock of
equipment furniture, stationary, etc. at regular
intervals. The person who checks the stocks fills in
his findings in a prescribed form.