India: The Inclusive Civilisation

LECTURE 1. INDIA: THE INCLUSIVE
CIVILISATION. INTRODUCTION

“INDIA & WORLD CIVILISATION”.
VOLUME 1 (D.P. SINGHAL)
“GEOGRAPHICALLY, THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION WAS PROBABLY TWICE
THE SIZE OF THE OLD KINGDOM OF EGYPT & FOUR TIMES THE SIZE OF
SUMER (CITY STATES OF MESOPOTAMIA) & AKKAD (ELAM). MAIN
SETTLEMENTS OF HARAPPA, MOHENJO-DARO & LOTHAL ARE
CONSIDERABLE DISTANCES FROM EACH OTHER. MOHENJO-DARO ON THE
LOWER INDUS RIVER & HARAPPA ON THE RAVI RIVER WERE SEPARATED
BY OVER THREE HUNDRED & FIFTY MILES. THE SMALLER TOWNSHIP
TRADING CENTRES & FARMING COMMUNITIES OCCUPIED A MUCH
MORE EXTENSIVE AREA. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS OF THE LAST
DECADE HAVE RESULTED IN A CONSIDERABLE EXTENSION OF WHAT
WERE FORMERLY BELIEVED TO BE THE BOUNDARIES OF THE HARAPPAN
CIVILIZATION TO NOW INCLUDE UTTAR PRADESH, RAJTHAN, & GUJARAT.
THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION THEREFORE OCCUPIED AN AREA OF
APPROXIMATELY 840,000 SQUARE MILES, STRETCHING FROM DELHI TO
BOMBAY (MUMBAI). SOME ESTIMATES SUGGEST THAT AT ITS HEIGHT,
THIS CIVILIZATION SUPPORTED UP TO 5 MILLION PEOPLE.”

INDUS VALLEY IRRIGATION
(ENGINEERS: CALCULATE HOW THIS
IRRIGATION SYSTEM WORKED)

INDUS VALLEY ANCESTOR OF THE
GREAT BOS INDICUS (ZEBU) BULL

INDUS VALLEY ORYZA NIVARA (WILD
RICE). ORIGINS OF ORYZA SATIVA.

INDUS VALLEY COTTON INDUSTRY.
(COTTON FRAGMENT FOUND AT
HARAPPA SITE)

INDIA: THE FIRST 2000 YEARS
“ EACH INVASION (OF INDIA) HAS ADDED DIVERSITY TO
INDIA’S VAST POPULATION & COMPLEXITY TO ITS RICH
PATTERN OF CULTURE; NONETHELESS, MANY OF THE
EARLIEST SEEDS OF THE ORIGINAL CIVILISATION HAVE
SURVIVED IN CLEARLY RECOGNISABLE FORM. LIKE THE
BRANCHES OF THE GREAT BANYAN TREETHAT HAVE LONG
SINCE SURPASSED THE ORIGINAL TRUNK IN GIRTH, THE
GREAT TRADITIONS OF INDIAN CIVILISATION HAVE
SPREAD FROM EPOCH TO EPOCH ACROSS THE
SUBCONTINENT OF THEIR BIRTH, DRAWING SUSTENANCE
FROM COUNTLESS LOCAL TRADITIONS, OFTEN STOOPING
TO CONQUER, & ENDURING ESSENTIALLY THROUGH
CHANGE.”
( STANLEY WOLPERT: “A NEW HISTORY OF INDIA”)

INDIA’S ADIVASI: ORIGINAL TRIBAL
POPULATION OF INDIA

INDIA’S DRAVIDIANS: DNA LINKS TO
INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

DISTINCTIVE SOUTH INDIAN SARI &
MUNDU

GREAT INDO-EUROPEAN MIGRATIONS
OUT OF CENTRAL ASIA OF WHICH
INDO-ARYAN (VEDIC) IS ONE BRANCH

EARLY INDO-ARYANS &
ESTABLISHMENT OF EARLY VEDIC
PERIOD IN INDIA

INDIA & THE COMING OF ISLAM
“ THE ADVENT OF ISLAM WAS THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENT IN THE HISTORY OF
INDIA SINCE THE COMING OF THE ARYANS, 7 IT WAS THE FIRST MAJOR IMPACT
OF AN ALIEN CULTURE ON HINDU SOCIETY. SO FAR, INDIA HAD ASSIMILATED ALL
IMMIGRANT PEOPLES & CULTURES; ON THE OTHER HAND, ISLAM HAD USUALLY
ASSIMILATED THE CULTURE OF THE LAND TO WHICH IT WENT. BUT IN INDIA,
ISLAM NEITHER LOST ITS IDENTITY NOR CONQUERED THE COUNTRY CULTURALLY;
BOTH APPROPRIATED SOMETHING OF EACH OTHER. THE MUSLIMS OF THE
SUBCONTINENT, WHO CONSTITUTE THE LARGEST MUSLIM POPULATION IN ANY
ONE COUNTRY, ARE CULTURALLY DISTINCT FROM THEIR CO-RELIGIONISTS IN
ARABIA, INDONESIA, OR ELSEWHERE. ALTHOUGH ISLAM ASSUMED AN INDIAN
CHARACTER, ITS ADHERENTS RETAINED YTHEIR DISTINCTIVE RELIGIOUS & SOCIAL
ORGANISATION. THE POLITICAL REPERCUSSIONS OF THIS DICHOTOMY HAVE
BEEN FAR REACHING,RESULTING IN THE PARTITION OF INDIA INTO TWO
INDEPENDENT STATES.
THE INDIA TO WHICH ISLAM CAME WAS IN A STATE OF DECLINE. NORTHERN
INDIA ESPECIALLY HAD LOST ITS VIGOR, THE REASONS FOR WHICH HAVE OFTEN
BEEN DEBATED BUT NEVER CONCLUSIVELY EXPLAINED.”
((D.P. SINGHAL. “INDIA & WORLD CIVILIZATION” VOLUME 2)

PERCENTAGES OF MUSLIM
POPULATION IN REGIONS OF INDIA

TRAIL OF MUSLIM SLAVE-TAKERS
THROUGH MOUNTAINS OF
HINDUKUSH (‘SLAYER OF HINDUS’)

HISTORIAN’S VIEW OF ISLAM’S
IMPACT ON HINDUS
“ THE MUSLIM SETTLERS CONSEQUENTLY REGARDED THEMSELVES, WHETHER RICH
OR POOR AS A SUPERIOR RACE, & ORDINARILY KEPT APART SO FAR AS POSSIBLE
FROM SOCIAL CONTACT WITH THE IDOLATORS. BUT IN THE COURSE OF TIME ,
THE BARRIER WAS PARTIALLY BROKEN DOWN. ONE CAUSE WHICH PROMOTED A
CERTAIN DEGREE OF INTERCOURSE WAS THE NECESSITY OF CONTINUING
EMPLOYMENT OF UNCONVERTED HINDUS IN CLERKSHIPS & A HOST OF MINOR
OFFICIAL POSTS WHICH THE MUSLIMS COULD NOT FILL THEMSELVES. ANOTHER
WAS THE LARGE NUMBER OF CONVERSIONS EFFECTED EITHER BY FEAR OF THE
SWORD OR BY PURCHASE (AS A SLAVE) . THE HINDUS THUS NOMINALLY
CONVERTED RETAINED MOST OF THE OLD HABITS & CONNEXIONS. EVEN NOW
THEIR DESCENDANTS ARE OFTEN HALF HINDU IN THEIR MODE OF LIFE….THE
INTRO DUCTION OF THE RELIGION OF THE PROPHET AS A PERMANENT FACTOR
IN THE LIFE OF INDIA COULD NOT BUT MODIFY THE NOTIONS OF THE HINDU
THINKERS. ALTHOUGH IT IS HARDLY NECESSARY TO OBSERVE THAT THE IDEA OF
THE UNITY OF GOD ALWAYS HAS BEEN & STILL IS FAMILIAR TO EVEN
UNEDUCATED HINDUS, IT SEEMS TO BE TRUE THAT THE PROMINENCE GIVEN TO
THE DOCTRINE BY MUSLIM TEACHING ENCOURAGED THE RISE OF RELIGIOUS
SCHOOLS WHICH SOUGHT FOR A CREED CAPABLE OF EXPRESSING MUSLIM 7
HINDU DEVOTION ALIKE.” (THE OXFORD HISTORY OF INDIA)

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE OF INDIA AT ITS
GREATEST EXTENT IN 1700

AKBAR THE GREAT: INDIA’S GREATEST
MOGHUL EMPEROR
“ THE HINDUS GRADUALLY OVERCAME THEIR NATURAL HOSTILITY AGAINST WHAT
HAD COME FROM OUTSIDE IN THE COMPANY OF THE SWORD. SLOWLY
THROUGHOUT INDIA, THE INITIAL CLASH WAS FOLLOWED BY FUSION &
SYNTHESIS. IN LANGUAGE & LITERATURE, SCIENTIFIC & PHILOSOPHICAL
THOUGHT , & ART & ARCHITECTURE, A NEW CHARACTER BEGAN TO EMERGE
WHICH REACHED ITS PEAK DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD, ESPECIALLY UNDER
AKBAR. HE INITIATED MEASURES TO BLEND THE TWO COMMUNITIES IN A
VARIETY OF WAYS. HIS DIN-I-ILAHI (THE DIVINE FAITH) IN WHICH HE SOUGHT TO
CREATE A UNIVERSAL RELIGION, WAS A NOBLE EFFORT.DARA SHIKOH
TRANSLATED THE UPANISHADS INTO PERSIAN, & IF HE, INSTEAD OF HIS
YOUNGER BROTHER & EXECUTIONER, AURANGZEB, HAD COME TO THE THRONE ,
THE HISTORY OF INDIA WOULD HAVE BEEN DIFFERENT. BOTH AKBAR & DARA, IN
ATTEMPTING TO UNITE THE TWO CULTURAL GROUPS, WERE FOLLOWING THE
MAIN TEACHING OF ISLAM, WHICH IS UNITY, HUMAN EQUALITY & UNIVERSAL
TOLERATION. ISLAM REJUVENATED INDIAN LIFE, BUT IT DID NOT GIVE RISE TO
SUBSTANTIALLY NEW & ENDURING DOCTRINES IN HINDU CULTURE. A POSSIBLE
EXPLANATION MAY BE THAT INDIAN THOUGHT WAS HIGHLY INTRICATE, WHILST
ISLAMIC THOUGHT WAS SIMPLE & STRAIGHTFORWARD WITH A POWERFUL
APPEAL FOR THE COMMON MAN BUT A LESS STRONG ONE FOR THE
INTELLECTUAL.” ( INDIAN HISTORIAN, D. P. SINGHAL’S REVIEW)

PORTUGAL’S TRADE & POLITICAL
ENTRY INTO INDIA AT ITS PEAK IN
16TH & 17TH CENTURIES

PORTUGAL’s CARREIRA da INDIA SEA
TRADING EMPIRE INCL. INDIA

CONSUMER GROWTH IN HIGH PRICED
CLOTHES, FOOD & SPICES MADE
PORTUGUESE TRADING FORTUNES
• PEPPER FOR PRESERVATION OF FOOD,
ESPECIALLY MEATS.
• CLOVES & CINNAMON STREWN ON FLOORS &
STORAGE AREAS FOR CLEANLINESS &
VENTILATION.
• NUTMEG CARRIED (WITH GRATERS) TO
IMPROVE TASTE OF PLAIN/UNSAVOURY FOOD.
• SPICES IN THROAT POMADES USED TO AVOID
SUFFOCATION IN CROWDED SPACES, DURING
ILLNESS & TO AVOID OFFENSIVE ODOURS.

RISE & FALL OF VEREENIGDE
OOSTINDISCHE COMPAGNIE (VOC):
DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY
• AGGRESSION AT SEA OF DUTCH SHIP MASTERS &
COMMANDERS DEVELOPED A REPUTATION FOR PIRACY.
• PORTUGUESE JESUITS HAD CONVERTED 8000 CHRISTIANS
IN BENGAL BUT DUTCH PREFERRED “LOOSE,
MANIPULATIVE ENCOUNTERS” (WE NOW CALL THIS
‘TRANSACTIONALITY’) BETWEEN DUTCH & LOCALS.
• 1720 – 1799 VOC WENT INTO DECLINE IN INDIA.
• AFTER 4TH ANGLO-DUTCH WAR (1780-1784) VOC WAS
NATIONALISED.
• 1791: AMSTERDAM EXCHANGE BANK, VOC BANKER,
WENT INSOLVENT FROM BAD INVESTMENTS IN VOC.
• 1799. VOC WAS DISSOLVED.
• DUTCH GOVERNMENT FORMALLY COLONISED VOC
POSSESSIONS - “DUTCH EAST INDIES”

COMPAGNIE DES ORIENTALES
FRENCH EAST INDIA COMPANY
(EST.1664)
• 1719: ACQUIRED MAURITIUS & REUNION ISLAND IN THE NAME
OF FRANCE & SET UP TRADING POSTS.
• IN A FEW YEARS IT WENT BANKRUPT & WAS RECONSTRUCTED.
• 1741: ADVENTURER JOSEPH FRANCOIS DUPLEIX AGGRESSIVELY
EXPANDED TRADING POSTS IN INDIA.
• PONDICHERRY (SOUTH EAST COAST)
• CHANDANAGORE (HOOGLI RIVER, BENGAL)
• VENTURES HAD FINANCIAL PROBLEMS.
• 1769: KING OF FRANCE PAID OFF ALL DEBTS 7 ACQUIRED ALL
ASSETS.
• 1794: COMPANY WOUND UP AFTER FINANCIAL SCANDALS.
MANAGEMENT LOST THEIR HEADS ON THE GUILLOTINE.

ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY
(EIC)FORMED BY ROYAL CHARTER IN
1600 FOR ELIZABETH’S FAVORITES
FEBRUARY 1601; FIRST 4 EIC SHIPS COMMANDED BY
JAMES LANCASTER SAIL FOR INDIA: “ THIS TIME
LANCASTER HAD BROUGHT BACK ALL FOUR VESSELS,
INTACT & FULLY LOADED. HE WAS CARRYING NO LESS
THAN 900 TONS OF PEPPER, CINNAMON & CLOVES,
MUCH OF IT TAKEN FROM A PORTUGUESE CARRACK.
( ‘ (THE CHARTER) AUTHORISED HIM TO INDULGE IN
PIRACY AGAINST SPANISH & PORTUGUESE SHIPS,
SHOULD AN OPPORTUNITY BE OFFERRED WITHOUT
PREJUDICE OR HAZARD’) ALONG WITH MORE SPICES
BOUGHT IN ACEH MADE THE VOYAGE AN IMPRESSIVE
300% PROFIT” (WILLIAM DALRYMPLE)

EAST INDIA COMPANY’s CORPORATE
MISSION
“ WE STILL TALK ABOUT THE BRITISH CONQUERING INDIA, BUT THAT PHRASE
DISGUISES A MORE SINISTER REALITY. IT WAS NOT THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT
THAT BEGAN SEIZING GREAT CHUNKS OF INDIA IN THE MID-EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY, BUT A DANGEROUSLY UNREGULATED PRIVATE COMPANY
HEADQUARTERED IN ONE SMALL OFFICE , FIVE WINDOWS WIDE, IN LONDON, 7
MANAGED IN INDIA BY A VIOLENT, UTTERLY RUTHLESS & INTERMITTENTLY
MENTALLY UNSTABLE CORPORATE PREDATOR – (ROBERT) CLIVE. INDIA’S
TRANSITION TO COLONIALISM TOOK PLACE UNDER A FOR-PROFIT
CORPORATION, WHICH EXISTED ENTIRELY FOR THE PURPOSE OF ENRICHING
INVESTORS….BY 1803, WHEN ITS PRIVATE ARMY HAD GROWN TO NEARLY
200,000 MEN, IT HAD SWIFTLY SUBDUED OR DIRECTLY SEIZED AN ENTIRE
SUBCONTINENT.” (WILLIAM DALRYMPLE)
“ THE MERCHANTS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY WERE GENERALLY GREEDY &
CORRUPT, FILLING THEIR OWN POCKETS BY CHEATING THE COMPANY & THE
INDIANS. THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO INDIA WERE POLITICAL ANARCHY,
ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION, CRUEL TAXATION, EXTRAVAGANT WARS, UNJUST
INTERVENTION & FORGED TREATIES. LONDON WAS APPALLED AT THIS
TARNISHING OF THE BRITISH NAME.” (D.P. SINGHAL “INDIA & WORLD
CIVILISATION)

E.I.C. FIRST MAJOR TRADING POST.
FORT ST.GEORGE, MADRAS. 1826.

INDIAN MUTINY (OR, FIRST WAR OF
INDEPENDENCE) 1858.
• AT MEERUT, 30 MILES FROM DELHI, BUT STILL PART OF ARMY OF
BENGAL, TOP REGIMENTS: 2 INFANTRY & 1 CAVALRY REGIMENT,
REFUSED AN ORDER TO DEMONSTRATE THE NEW .577 ENFIELD
RIFLE LOADING DRILL - CARTIIDGE SMEARED WITH TALLOW BUT
ACTIVATED BY USING LEFT HAND TO TEAR OFF CARTRIDGE CAP.
• 85 SKIRMISHERS – ALL TOP SOLDIERS – WERE TRIED,
DISHONOURED (ALONG WITH FAMILIES & THEIR VILLAGES) &
GIVEN 10 YEARS HARD LABOUR.
• SUNDAY, 10 MAY 1857, THE 3RD CAVALRY REGIMENT FREED THEIR
HEROES, KILLED THEIR OFFICERS & FAMILIES & RODE FOR DELHI
WHERE THEY KILLED MILITARY & CIVILIAN EUROPEANS.
• TWO OF THE VERY BEST ARMIES IN THE WORLD (200,000 EAST
INDIA COMPANY ARMY & BRITISH ARMY) WERE NOW AT WAR
WITH EACH OTHER. WHEN IT ENDED THERE WAS A HUGE CAVERN
BETWEEN THE INDIANS & THE BRITISH.

“MUTINEERS” EXECUTED BY
BLOWING FROM CANNONS

“ THE HISTORICAL ORIGINS OF COTTON ARE SOMEWHAT UNCERTAIN,
BUT THE ANTIQUITY OF THE INDIAN COTTON TRADE IS
UNDOUBTED…ASSENBIPAL (668 – 626 BC) CULTIVATED INDIAN
PLANTS, INCLUDING THE ‘WOOL BEARING TREES’ OF INDIA. WHEN
THE GREEKS FIRST SAW INDIANS, THE LATTER WERE DRESSED IN
‘WOOL GROWN ON TREES’…WHEN PERENNIAL COTTON PLANTS -
ORIGINALLY NATIVE ONLY TO INDIA – WERE FIRST GROWN IN
WESTERN ASIA IS A MATTER OF CONJECTURE, BUT ‘SINCE THERE
IS KNOWN TO HAVE BEEN CONTACT BETWEEN MOHENJO-DARO
AND CONTEMPORARY CIVILIZATIONS IN BABYLONIA’, IT SEEMS
LIKELY THAT COTTONS OF THE INDUS VALLEY WERE DISTRIBUTED
ALONG THE PERSIAN COAST & AS FAR UP THE PERSIAN GULF AS
PERENNIALS COULD BE SUCCESSFULLY GROWN.”
( INDIA AND WORLD CIVILIZATION. VOLUME 1)

CRANIO-FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF
2 SKULLS FOUND IN RUINS OF
HARAPPA

“INDIA & WORLD CIVILIZATION”
VOLUME 1
“ THE FULL IMPLICATION OF THESE REMAINS (HUMAN
REMAINS IN THE INDUS VALLEY) INSOFAR AS THEY
THROW A LIGHT ON INTERNATIONAL CONTACT ,
HAVE YET TO BE PROPERLY ASSESSED HAS LED SIR
LEONARD WOOLLEY ( SIR CHARLES LEONARD
WOOLLEY. A DISTINGUISHED ARCHAEOLOGIST ,
FAMOUS FOR HIS DISCOVERIES IN UR,
MESOPOTAMIA) TO SUGGEST AS AN EXPLANATION OF
THE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE INDUS & SUMERIAN
CIVILIZATIONS, THAT THE POPLE OF SUMER WERE
NEWCOMERS FROM THE EAST WHO HAD BROUGHT
THE ARTS & CRAFTS WITH THEM, & THAT BOTH
PEOPLES PROBABLY HAD A COMMON ORIGIN.”

INDUS VALLEY TRADE ROUTES ON
LAND & SEA

LAND & SEA TRANSPORT
CONNECTIONS OF INDUS VALLEY
LAND CONNECTIONS
FROM THE INDUS VALLEY PORTS OF GUJARAT &
BARBARICON DUE NORTH TO TAXILA (700 – 1000
MILES) & THEN SILK ROAD TO CHINA.
SEA CONNECTIONS
FROM GUJARAT & BARBARICON TO HIRA
(MESOPOTAMIA) & STOPPING AT GULF OF OMAN
(TOTAL DISTANCE 600 MILES) & PERHAPS NILE DELTA.

INDUS VALLEY TRANSPORT OF
IMPORTANT PEOPLE

INDUS ARCHITECT’S IVORY RULERS:
1.32 INCHES SPACING,DECIMAL SUB-
DIVISIONS (0.005 ACCURACY)

INDUS VALLEY CITY GRID: IN 2
SECTIONS & HIGH WALL(HOLD BACK
FLOODS) & GATEWAY FOR TRAFFIC

LIFE IN AN INDUS VALLEY HOUSE
(WATER WELL, DRAINAGE & BATH)

GREAT BATH AT MOHENJO-DARO.
NOTE GALLERIES & ROOMS AT TOP
(ONE THEORY: RELIGIOUS RITUALS)

THE COMING OF THE ARYANS
AROUND 1800 BC (D.P. SINGHAL)
“ THE SECOND STAGE OF CIVILIZATION BEGAN AROUND
1500 BC WITH THE COMING OF THE ARYANS WHO
BROUGHT A CIVILIZATION VERY DIFFERENT FROM
THAT OF THE INDUS. STILL SEMI-NOMADIC, ARYANS
WERE MAINLY OCCUPIED WITH WAR & CATTLE
RAISING & ONLY SECONDARILY WITH AGRICULTURE.
THE EXACT LOCATION OF THEIR ORIGINS HAS BEEN A
DEBATEABLE POINT IN HISTORY, SOMETIMES
VITIATED BY NATIONALISTIC FEELING….MOST
SCHOLARS, HOWEVER, CONSIDERING THE EVIDENCE
OF PHILOLOGY & ARCHAEOLOGY, MAINTAIN THAT THE
ARYANS & INDO-EUROPEAN PEOPLES ORIGINATED
SOMEWHERE IN CENTRAL ASIA OR SOUTH RUSSIA.”

GEOGRAPHIC SPREAD OF INDO-
ARYAN LANGUAGES INTO
SUBCONTINENT’S POPULATION

PALEOLITHIC SURVEYS BY SATELLITES
SHOW CHANGE IN RIVER SYSTEMS
CAUSED BY CLIMATE/TECTONICS ?

IS THIS THE REASON FOR THE
COLLAPSE OF THE INDUS VALLEY
CIVILISATION?
“ WE RECONSTRUCTED THE DYNAMIC LANDSCAPE OF THE
PLAIN WHERE THE INDUS CIVILIZATION DEVELOPED 3200
YEARS AGO, BUILT ITS CITIES, & SLOWLY DISINTEGRATED
BETWEEN 3900 & 3000 YEARS AGO’, SAID LIVIN GIOSAN ,
A GEOLOGIST WITH WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC
INSTITUTION (WHOI) & LEAD AUTHOR OF THE STUDY
PUBLISHED THE WEEK OF 28 MAY…’UNTIL NOW
SPECULATIONS ABOUND ABOUT THE LINKS BETWEEN THIS
MYSTERIOUS ANCIENT CULTURE & ITS LIFE-GIVING
MIGHTY RIVERS.” (LECTURER: THERE IS HEAPS ON THIS ON
THE INTERNET. IF THIS CAN HAPPEN TO THE OLD INDUS
VALLEY – WHICH TOOK A LONG SLOW TIME - COULD IT
HAPPEN TO THE MURRAY-DARLING SYSTEM ?)

MIGRATION OF ARYANS TO EUROPE
(IN RED)

CARVED INDO-ARYAN HORSE &
CHARIOT. 1200BC. DARASUNAM.

INDO-ARYAN STEPPE PONIES
IMPORTED INTO INDIA DUE TO
INDIA’S CLIMATE

INDO – ARYAN SETTLEMENT IN INDIA

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STUDY
INTERNET READING
WIKIPEDIA: INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION.
NATURE (ARCHAEOLOGY & PALEONTOLOGY)
200 –YEAR DROUGHT DOOMED INDUS VALLEY
CIVILIZATION.
EUROPEAN GEOSCIENCES UNION: NEOGLACIAL
CLIMATE ANOMALIES & THE HARAPPAN
METAMORPHOSIS

2. BOOKS
GREGORY L. POSSEHI: THE INDUS CIVILIZATION: A
CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE.
(276 PAGES. $97.41 AT BOOKTOPIA BUT TRY ALL
GOOD LIBRARIES)
HOOURLY HISTORY (AUTHOR): INDUS VALLEY
CIVILIZATION: A HISTORY FROM BEGINNING TO
END.
( AMAZON: $20.85; KINDLE UNLIMITED:$3.85;
AUDIOBOOK: FREE WITH YOUR AUDIBLE TRIAL)

3. DOCUMENTARIES
YOUTUBE: “INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION –
WORLD HISTORY.”
(1 HOUR, 18 MINUTES)

ENJOY A MOVIE FOR RELAXATION
MOHENJO – DARO
FULL MOVIE ON YOUTUBE
“AN ACTION/ROMANCE” 2 HOURS 36 MIN.
IN HINDI BUT THE FILM IS IN THE GRAND
TRADITION OF THE OLD STYLE HOLLYWOOD
ACTION/ ROMANCE.
(A GREAT ANTIDOTE TO THE CORONAVIRUS
ANXIETIES)

LECTURE 2. INDIA: THE FIRST
2000 YEARS
“ EACH INVASION HAS ADDED DIVERSITY TO INDIA’S VAST
POPULATION & COMPLEXITY TO ITS RICH PATTERN OF
CULTURE; NONETHELESS, MANY OF THE EARLIEST SEEDS
OF THE ORIGINAL CIVILIZATION HAVE SURVIVED IN
CLEARLY RECOGNIZABLE FORM. LIKE THE BRANCHES OF
THE GIANT BANYAN TREE THAT HAVE LONG SINCE
SURPASSED THE ORIGINAL TRUNK IN GIRTH, THE GREAT
TRADITIONS OF INDIAN CIVILIZATION HAVE SPREAD FROM
EPOCH TO EPOCH ACROSS THE SUBCONTINENT OF THEIR
BIRTH, DRAWING SUSTENANCE FROM COUNTLESS LOCAL
TRADITIONS, OFTEN STOOPING TO CONQUER, AND
ENDURING ESSENTIALLY THROUGH CHANGE.”
(STANLEY WOLPERT: “A NEW HISTORY OF INDIA”)

THE ADVASI: CONSTITUTIONALLY
SCHEDULED INDIGENOUS TRIBES (104
MILLION PEOPLE)

DRAVIDIANS:GENETIC LINKS TO
SUMERIAN/INDUS VALLEY (3000 BC.):
CALLED, “ANCESTRAL SOUTH INDIAN”.

TRADITIONAL SOUTH INDIAN:
KERALA SARI & LUNGI-MAN’S OUTFIT

INDO-ARYAN MIGRATION TO INDIA:
FIRST (MITANNI KINGDOM) WAVE

INDO-ARYAN MIGRATION:
SECOND (LINGUISTIC IRANIAN) WAVE

BASIC MIGRATION DRIVER: CLIMATE
CAUSED DROUGHT, ARIDIFICATION &
URBAN COLLAPSE: EURASIA.‘000s B.C.

BASIC MIGRATION DRIVER TURNED
TRIBES INTO “MOBILE PASTORALISTS”
MOBILE PASTORALISM CARRIED MANY RISKS:
1. TRIBES OFTEN FOUGHT EACH OTHER FOR ACCESS TO GRASSLANDS &
WATER. (CF: “RANGE WARS” IN EARLY U.S.).
2. TRIBAL WARS WERE “WINNER TAKE ALL” WARS WHICH OFTEN WERE
GENOCIDAL OF OPPOSING TRIBES, IN CASE OF LATER RETRIBUTION
3. NEED FOR MOBILE WARFARE TACTICS LED TO THE CREATION OF
“CHARIOT CULTURES”
4. MOST FLOCKS WERE “MALNOURISHED” BY OUR STANDARDS.
5. MALNOURISHED LIVESTOCK CARRIED INFECTIOUS VIRAL, ZOONOTIC &
BACTERIAL DISEASES CARRIED BY PARASITES (ESPECIALLY TICKS) –
DECIMATING FLOCKS & HUMAN POPULATIONS ( LOCALISED ZOONOTIC
DISEASE OUTBREAKS WOULD HAVE DRIVEN TRIBES RAPIDLY OUT OF
INFECTED AREAS, IN ORDER TO SURVIVE). ( YOUR HOMEWORK: LOTS
OF ARTICLES ON INTERNET. HAS WESTERN CHINA BEEN - RAINFALL
SLIDE ABOVE - A THOUSAND YEAR INCUBATOR FOR ZOONOTIC
DISEASES, SINCE ITS GRADUAL DESERTIFICATION? )

INDO – ARYAN MIGRATION INTO
INDIA & ESTABLISH VEDIC AGE (1500
BC – 500 BC)

VEDIC VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE
TRANSPOSED INTO 21 C. RESORT &
SPA USING VEDIC HEALING METHODS

LATER VEDIC PERIOD(1000 BC-450 BC)
CONQUEST & UNIFICATION OF NORTH
INDIA (KINGDOMS,TRIBES,RELIGION)

VEDIC CULTURE LAYS FOUNDATIONS
FOR ALL ASPECTS OF INDIAN
THOUGHT“ IN INDIAN CIVILISATION, PHILOSOPHY & RELIGION - PHILOSOPHY
MADE DYNAMIC BY RELIGION , RELIGION ENLIGHTENED BY
PHILOSOPHY, HAVE LED, THE REST FOLLOW AS BEST THEY CAN.
THIS IS INDEED ITS FIRST DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER, WHICH IT
SHARES WITH THE MORE DEVELOPED ASIATIC PEOPLES, BUT HAS
CARRIED TO AN EXTRAORDINARY DEGREE OF THOROUGHGOING
PERVASIVENESS. WHEN IT IS SPOKEN OF AS A BRAHMANICAL
CIVILISATION THAT IS THE REAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
PHRASE…PHILOSOPHY & RELIGION ARE THE SOUL OF INDIAN
CULTURE. EVRYTHING ELSE IN IT HAS DERIVED FROM THAT ONE
CENTRAL & ORIGINAL PECULIARITY OR HAS BEEN IN SOME WAY
DEPENDENT ON IT OR SUBORDINATE TO IT …”
( SRI AUROBINDO. “ THE SPIRITUALITY & SYMMETRIC CHARACTER OF
INDIAN CULTURE”)

MOHANDAS GANDHI. EPITOME OF
HINDUISM & JAINISM. “GREATEST
INDIAN SINCE THE BUDDHA”

STATUE OF THE GAUTAMA BUDDHA
AT PRAYER.BUDDHISM AS INDIA’S 3RD
GREAT RELIGION

THE ARTHSHASTRA : “THE SCIENCE OF
MATERIAL GAIN” (200 BC -300 BC). A
TEXTBOOK ON REALPOLITIK
PRINTED IN 15 BOOKS ON 180 TOPICS
E.G.:( RULES OF KINGSHIP & WAR IN BOOKS 2, 10, 6)
• ONE CAN LOSE A WAR AS EASILY AS ONE CAN WIN.
• WAR IS INHERENTLY UNPREDICTABLE
• WAR IS EXPENSIVE. AVOID WAR.
• TRY UPAYA ( THE 4 STRATEGIES)
• THEN SADGUNYA (6 FORMS OF NON-WAR STRATEGIES)
• UNDERSTAND THE OPPONENT & SEEK TO OUTWIT HIM.
• WHEN EVERYTHING FAILS, RESORT TO MILITARY FORCE.

INDIA’S FIRST IMPERIUM.
THE MAURYAN DYNASTY 324-184 BC
• EMPEROR CHANDRAGUPTA (324-297 BC)
• MENTORED & LEARNED FROM AUTHORS OF ARTHSHASTRA.
• BUILT UP A WELL-DRILLED ARMY, WHICH DETERRED EMPEROR OF SELEUCIDS (PERSIA).
• SPOHISTICATED FOREIGN POLICY (CONCEPT OF CONQUEROR KING AS CENTRE OF 12 RINGS OF
INFLUENCE) TO NEUTRALISE ENEMIES.
• INTRODUCED 3 LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT CONCEPT.
• FOCUSSED ON BUILDING STRONG NETWORK OF ROADS INCL. A 1000 MILE “SUPER-HIGHWAY”
ACROSS NORTH INDIA.
• 301 BC GAVE HIS THRONE TO HIS SON & BECAME A JAIN MONK
• EMPEROR ASHOKA (265 BC - 232 BC)
• CONVERTED TO BUDDHISM IN 258 BC & MAJOR PROPHET. PREACHING FOR THE MORAL UPLIFT
OF HIS PEOPLE. THE BASIS OF MORALITY WAS THE FAMILY. ALL CONTAINED IN HIS ROCK EDICTS.
• 4 LIONS OF INDIA EMBLEM (4 NOBLE TRUTHS)
• ASHOKA CHAKRA SUPPORTED BY THE LIONS. A WHEEL OF 24 SPOKES OF THE “WHEEL OF LAW”.
FOUNDERS OF THE INDIAN REPUBLIC PLACED IT AT THE CENTRE OF THE INDIAN FLAG.

INDIA’S NATIONAL EMBLEM (4 NOBLE
TRUTHS ATOP THE DHARMACHAKRA)

MAURYAN EMPIRE AT ITS MAXIMUM
EXTENT IN 250 BC (ASHOKA ERA)

FRAGMENTATION OF INDIA: INDO-
GREEK KINGDOM (190 BC – 10 AD)

INDO-GREEK KINGDOM DEVELOPS
STRONG LINKS WITH ROMAN EMPIRE
• CREATION OF AN INTELLECTUAL FLOWERING IN INDIAN SCIENCE,
MEDICINE, ASTRONOMY, INDIAN TRIGONOMETRY (VIA ALEXANDRIA
MATHS) USED IN IRRIGATION/LAND SURVEYS.
• PLINY RECORDS 120 VESSELS EACH YEAR IN HIGH VALUE EXPORTS TO
WEALTHY ROMANS, IN EXCHANGE FOR GOLD/SILVER:IVORY, AGATE,
CARNELIAN; LYCEUM, COTTON CLOTH, SILK CLOTH, MALLOW CLOTH,
YARN,LONG PEPPER & OTHER GOODS.
• IMPORTS: WINES, COPPER, TIN, CORAL, TOPAZ, THIN CLOTHING & CHEAP
CLOTH,GIRDLES, STORAX, SWEET CLOVER, FLINT GLASS, REALGAR,
ANTIMONY GOLD/SILVER COINS, CHEAP OINTMENTS (THE KING
RECEIVED: VESSELS OF SILVER, SINGING BOYS, MAIDENS FOR HIS
HAREM, FINE WINE, FINE WEAVE CLOTHING, CHOICEST OINTMENTS.)
• BEGINNING OF INDIA AS WORLD CENTRE FOR PRECIOUS METAL/
JEWELLERY TRADE.
• ARTISANS & MERCHANTS DEVELOPED GUILD SYSTEM AND MERCHANT
CORPORATIONS THAT SURVIVE TO PRESENT DAY

INDO-SCYTHIANS: 180 BC – 400 AD.
MILITARY LEGENDS. FORBEARS OF
WARRIOR CASTE, RAJPUTS ETC.

STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH:
DESCENDED FROM LEGENDARY INDO-
ARYAN MILITARY TRIBE & TRADERS

CHOLA EMPIRE (300 BC – 1279 AD):
ONE OF THREE “TAMILAND”
KINGDOMS

PANDYA EMPIRE (12TH – 14TH
CENTURIES A.D.). (NOTE OVERLAP
WITH CHOLA EMPIRE)

CHERA KINGDOM (200 AD – 300 AD):
PART OF TRADING WEALTH OF THE 3
“TAMILAND” STATES

THE CLASSCAL AGE OF THE GUPTA
EMPIRE (319 AD – 543 AD)

EMPEROR SAMUDRA GUPTA (335 AD
– 375 AD). “NAPOLEON OF ANCIENT
INDIA”

SKANDAGUPTA. 8TH EMPEROR.
(455 AD – 467 AD). SPENT MOST TIME
REPELLING INVADERS

ECONOMIC DOMINANCE OF INDO-
PACIFIC UNDER THE GUPTAS
• IN 500 AD INDIA PRODUCED 30% OF THE
KNOWN WORLD’S GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT.
• GUPTA BUILT SHIPS DOMINATED TRADE ROUTES
TO CHINA. BURMA & S.E. ASIA.
• INDIA EMBARKED ON TRADE BASED CULTURAL
COLONISATION OF S.E. ASIA.
• PRODUCTION BASE: CLOTHING TEXTILES,
LEATHERGOODS, SALT & METAL MINES (ESP.
IRONWORKS), JEWELLERY & PRECIOUS METALS.
• LEGENDS OF INDIAN SHIPPING TO MEXICO.

EMPIRE OF HARSHA VARDHANA
(606 -647 AD). WHEN HE DIED HIS
EMPIRE DISINTEGRATED

1. THE INTERNET
WIKIPEDIA:INDO-ARYAN MIGRATION
ARTHASHASTRA
VEDIC PERIOD
DRAVIDIAN PEOPLES
GUPTA EMPIRE
REV.SCI.TECH.OFF.EPIZ., 2016 35. “COST-EFFECTIVE
CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR ANIMAL &
ZOONOTIC DISEASES IN PASTORALIST
POPULATIONS.”

2. BOOKS
• “THE QUEST FOR THE ORIGINS OF VEDIC CULTURE: THE
INDO- ARYAN MIGRATION DEBATE.”
BY EDWIN BRYANT.
KINDLE EDITION: $74.85, PAPERBACK $72.95 AT AMAZON
BUT TRY LOCAL LIBRARY.
• “THE HORSE, THE WHEEL, AND LANGUAGE: HOW BRONZE
– AGE RIDERS FROM THE EURASIAN STEPPES SHAPED THE
MODERN WORLD.”
BY DAVID W. ANTHONY.
KINDLE EDITION: $32. 29, PAPERBACK: $39.76 AT AMAZON
BUT TRY LOCAL LIBRARY

3. DOCUMENTARIES
• “ANCIENT INDIA. ITS EARLIEST CIVILISATION”
BBC DOCUMENTARY. 52 MINUTES.
• “HISTORY: GUPTA PERIOD”
THIS IS A 59 MINUTE YOUTUBE LECTURE BY A
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, DELHI UNIVERSITY
USING A POWERPOINT PRESENTATION FORMAT,
AND IS PROFESSIONALLY PRESENTED.

ENJOY A MOVIE FOR RELAXATION
• “BHARATVASH EPISODE 3. STORY OF MAURYAN
EMPEROR ASHOKA SAMRAT “
IN HINDI. 53 MINUTES. SUGGEST READ UP ON
ASHOKA IN WIKIPEDIA FIRST. THERE IS ALSO AN
EPIC BOLLYWOOD ON ASHOKA IN HINDI. WITH
TRAILERS ETC. WORTH A LOOK.
• “KINGS & DYNASTIES OF INDIA- RULERS OF
INDIA” . ENGLISH. 51 MINUTES. MOCOMI KIDS
PRODUCTION. ARTBOOK PRESENTATION WELL
DONE.

LECTURE 3. INDIA: THE COMING OF
ISLAM
“ THE ADVENT OF ISLAM WAS THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENT IN THE HISTORY
OF INDIA SINCE THE COMING OF THE ARYANS, & IT WAS THE FIRST MAJOR
IMPACT OF AN ALIEN CULTURE ON HINDU SOCIETY. SO FAR, INDIA HAD
ASSIMILATED ALL IMMIGRANT PEOPLES & CULTURES; ON THE OTHER HAND ,
ISLAM HAD USUALLY ASSIMILATED THE CULTURE OF THE LAND TO WHICH IT
WENT. BUT IN INDIA, ISLAM NEITHER LOST ITS IDENTITY NORR CONQUERED
THE COUNTRY CULTURALLY; BOTH APPROPRIATED SOMETHING OF EACH
OTHER. THE MUSLIMS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT , WHO CONSTITUTE THE
LARGEST MUSLIM POPULATION IN ANY ONE COUNTRY, ARE CULTURALLY
DISTINCT FROM THEIR CO-RELIGIONISTS IN ARABIA, INDONESIA, OR
ELSEWHERE. ALTHOUGH ISLAM ASSUMED AN INDIAN CHARACTER, ITS
ADHERENTS RETAINED THEIR DISTINCTIVE RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL
ORGANIZATION. THE POLITICAL REPERCUSSIONS OF THIS DICHOTOMY HAVE
BEEN FAR-REACHING , RESULTING IN THE PARTITION OF INDIA INTO TWO
INDEPENDENT STATES.
THE INDIA TO WHICH ISLAM CAME WAS IN A STATE OF DECLINE. NORTHERN
INDIA ESPECIALLY HAD LOST ITS VIGOR, THE REASONS FOR WHICH HAVE OFTEN
BEEN DEBATED BUT NEVER CONCLUSIVELY EXPLAINED.
( D.P. SINGHAL. “INDIA & WORLD CIVILIZATION” VOLUME 2)

PERCENTAGES OF THE 172 MILLION
MUSLIMS IN INDIA, BY EACH STATE.
INDIA

MUSLIM GHAZNAVID EMPIRE: 17
BORDER RAIDS INTO INDIA FOR
EXTORTION OF RAJAS & SLAVES

HINDU KUSH (‘SLAYER OF HINDUS’).
MOUNTAIN ROUTE FOR GHAZNAVID
ETC. SLAVE CARAVANS FROM INDIA

INVASIONS BY MUSLIM WARLORDS
(1186 – 1210 AD)
1186: MUHAMMAD GHURI CAPTURES SIND
PROVINCE ON THE INDUS BASIN….
“HE WAS THUS IN A POSITION TO MAKE FURTHER
ADVANCES INTO THE FERTILE PLAINS OF INDIA,
TEEMING WITH TEMPTING RICHES, AND
INHABITED WITH IDOLATORS, FIT ONLY TO BE
‘SENT TO HELL’ ACCORDING TO THE SIMPLE
CREED OF THE INVADERS.”
(OXFORD HISTORY OF INDIA)

DELHI SULTANATE (1206-1526)
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY CONQUESTS
(1321 – 1399)

DELHI SULTANATE (1)
• THE FIRST RULERS FROM 1210 WERE KNOWN AS THE “SLAVE DYNASTY”
BECAUSE OF THEIR ORIGINS IN THE MAMLUKS – CHRISTIAN SLAVES,
CONVERTED & RECRUITED FOR WARFARE AS CHILDREN.
• WHILST THESE RULERS’ KEPT OUT THE MONGOL HORDES FROM INDIA,
THEY DID PERPETRATE MASSACRES OF INDIANS, DESTRUCTION OF
TOWNS & CITIES & DESECRATION OF TEMPLES, STATUES ETC.
• THE CONQUERED AREAS IN INDIA WERE DECLARED DAR-UL-ISLAM
(LANDS OF SUBMISSION). FOR THEIR PROTECTION THE PEOPLE
SUBMITTED TO THE LAW OF THE SHARIAT, GRANTING THEM THE
PRIVILEGE OF DHIMMI (PROTECTED PERSONS). IN RETURN ALL PEOPLE
PAID A HEAD TAX, WHILE LOCAL RULERS COULD ALSO RAISE A TAX FOR
THEIR EXPENSES .
• UNREST WAS RUTHLESSLY SUPPRESSED.
• ISLAMIC INDIA’S FIRST WOMAN RULER, RAZIYYA, CAME TO POWER IN
1240, BUT WAS MURDERED BY HER BODYGUARD SHORTLY AFTER. THEIR
LEADER , GHIYAS UD DIN BALBAN, APPOINTED HIMSELF AS SULTAN OF
DELHI.

GHIYAS UD DIN BALBAN. 9TH SULTAN
OF DELHI. RE-ORGANISED
BUREAUCRACY & ARMY (1266-1287)

KHALJI SULTANATE (1290 – 1320)
DARK GREEN (CONQUERED). LIGHT
GREEN (VASSAL STATES)

KHALJI DYNASTY: 2ND DYNASTY TO
RULE DELHI SULTANATE
• 1290: JALAL-UD-DIN FIRIZ KHALJI, A GENERAL IN BALBAN’S ARMY SIEZES
POWER WHILST BALBAN’S GRANDCHILDREN FIGHT OVER SUCCESSION.
• 1296: JALAL IS MURDERED BY HIS NEPHEW ALA-UD-DIN . HE USES THE
SULTANATE ARMY TO INVADE THE DECCAN (CENTRAL INDIA) KINGDOM
RULED BY THE YADAVA DYNASTY, & EMPTIES THEIR VAULTS OF BIG
CACHE OF GOLD BULLION TO PROP UP DELHI’S FINANCES.
• ALA-UD-DIN WAS A “HIGH TAX- HIGH SPEND” RULER.
• HIS LAND TAX ON HINDU LANDOWNERS WAS UP TO 50% ON EACH CROP
PRODUCED. FARMERS SOLD GRAIN TO LICENSED (& TAXED) DESIGNATED
MERCHANTS WHOSE TRANSACTIONS WERE CAREFULLY MONITORED.
• FOOD & CLOTHING WAS SUBSIDISED.
• THE DECCAN WAS PERIODICALLY RAIDED TO REPLENISH DELHI
SULTANATE’S COFFERS.
• GREAT MILITARY PRESSURE CAME FROM MONGOL RAIDERS 1303 – 1306

MONGOL RAIDERS ATTACK A CITY
WALL

KHALJI ARMY DEFENCE AGAINST
MONGOLS & RAIDERS OF DECCAN

ALA-UD-DIN KHALJI (NO RELATION TO
ALADDIN OF THE MAGIC LAMP)

TUGHLAQ DYNASTY. 3RD DYNASTY TO
RULE DELHI SULTANATE ( 1320- 1398)
1320: GHIYAS-UD-DINSIEZES POWER FOR TUGHLUQS FROM KHALJIS.
1325: GHIYAS DIES IN AN ACCIDENT(?).
SUCCEEDED BY SON, MUHAMMAD, WHO IS FULL OF IDEAS (GOOD & BAD)
1. TRANSFERS CAPITAL DELHI TO DECCAN, UNPOPULAR WITH NOBLES.
2. INTRODUCES BRASS & COPPER COINAGE – REJECTED BY MERCHANTS & FORGERIES MADE IN
THOUSANDS OF KITCHENS (ROYAL MINT TOLD: EXCHANGE FOR SILVER/GOLD )
3. WHEN STATE REVENUES COLLAPSED, ALL OFFICIALS DOWN TO DISTRICT LEVEL WERE
ENCOURAGED TO TAX INDIVIDUAL HINDU VILLAGES, PAY THEIR SALARIES & SEND THE REST
TO THE ROYAL TREASURY.
4. A CHRONICLER , IBN BATTUTA, A MOROCCAN VISITOR DESCRIBES THE FANATICAL SUNNI-FAITH,
SULTAN MUHAMMAD’S, REIGN: “ NOT A WEEK PASSED WITHOUT THE SPILLING OF MUCH
(NON-SUNNI) MUSLIM BLOOD & THE RUNNING OF STREAMS OF GORE BEFORE THE ENTRANCE
OF HIS PALACE. THIS INCLUDED CUTTING PEOPLE IN HALF, SKINNING THEM ALIVE, CHOPPING
OFF HEADS & DISPLAYING THEM ON POLES AS A WARNING TO OTHERS, OR HAVING PRISONERS
TOSSED ABOUT BY ELEPHANTSWITH SWORDS ATTACHED TO THEIR TUSKS.”
5. MUHAMMAD TRIED TO ENFORCE STRICT OBSERVANCE OF SUNNI PRACTICE, PROMOTED
JIHAD IN SOUTH EAST ASIA AS AL-MUJUHID FI SABILILLAH (“WARRIORS FOR THE PATH OF
GOD”). SOME HISTORIANS SUGGEST HE WAS INSANE.

MUHAMMAD TUGHLAQ (SULTAN OF
DELHI 1325-1351) A “LUNATIC
VISIONARY” ?

FEROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (3RD SULTAN
OF DELHI, 1351 – 1388). SULTANATE
SHRUNK TO VINDHYA RANGE

FEROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ’s REIGN
• ELIMINATED ALL EXTREME TORTURES &
EXECUTIONS, PATRONAGE OF ESPECIALLY
FAVOURED & PERSECUTION OF OTHERS ON
RELIGIOUS GROUNDS.
• INSTITUTED A MASSIVE BUILDING PROGRAM TO
RE-VITALISE A FAILED ECONOMY: IRRIGATION
CANALS, BRIDGES, MADRASSAS (SCHOOLS), 40
MOSQUES, 30 COLLEGES, 100 HOSPITALS, 200
NEW TOWNS & A NEW SULTANATE CAPITAL
CALLED FIROZABAD, NEAR DELHI.

FEROZ SHAH KOTLA FORT,
FIROZABAD, 5TH CITY OF DELHI.
DJINNS (GENIE) GRANT WISHES HERE.

THE COMING OF TIMUR THE LAME
1398/99 & DESTRUCTION OF THE
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY• AFTER FEROZ SHAH, 5 MORE SULTANS OVERSAW THE COLLAPSE
OF THE DYNASTY & A DEEPENING DIVIDE BETWEEN MUSLIMS &
HINDUS.
• “ WHILE RIVAL FACTIONS FOUGHT AMONG THEMSELVES IN DELHI,
THE CENTRAL ASIAN ARMIES OF TIMUR THE LAME (TAMBERLANE)
WAITING BEYOND THE NORTHWESTERN GATES, SWOOPED DOWN
THROUGH THE PASSES TO PLUNDER THE PUNJAB & IN 1398
ENTERED DELHI ITSELF. THE DEATH & PLUNDER OF OLD DELHI BY
TIMUR’S FORCES LEFT ‘TOWERS BUILT HIGH WITH THE HEADS &
REVAGED BODIES OF HINDUS . TENS OF THOUSANDS OF SLAVES
WERE DRAGGED AWAY AS LIVING BOOTY, & THE GREAT MOSQUE
AT SAMARKAND WAS LATER REBUILT BY THE STONEMASONS OF
DELHI.”
( STANLEY WOLPERT. “A NEW HISTORY OF INDIA”)

TIMUR’S CAVALRY OVERCOME THE
DEFENDERS OF DELHI. 1398.

A VIEW OF THE IMPACT OF THE
COMING OF ISLAM ON HINDUS
“ THE MUSLIM SETTLERS CONSEQUENTLY REGARDED THEMSELVES, WHETHER RICH
OR POOR AS A SUPERIOR RACE, & ORDINARILY KEPT APART SO FAR AS POSSIBLE
FROM SOCIAL CONTACT WITH THE IDOLATORS. BUT IN THE COURSE OF TIME, THE
BARRIER WAS PARTIALLY BROKEN DOWN . ONE CAUSE WHICH PROMOTED A
CERTAIN DEGREE O INTERCOURSE WAS THE NECESSITY OF CONTINUING
EMPLOYMENT OF UNCONVERTED HINDUS IN CLERKSHIPS & A HOST OF MINOR
OFFICIAL POSTS WHICH THE MUSLIMS COULD NOT FILL THEMSELVES. ANOTHER
WAS THE LARGE NUMBER OF CONVERSIONS EFFECTED EITHER BY FEAR OF THE
SWORD OR BY PURCHASE (AS A SLAVE). THE HINDUS THUS NOMINALLY
CONVERTED RETAINED MOST OF THE OLD HABITS & CONNEXIONS. EVEN NOW
THEIR DESCENDANTS ARE OFTEN HALF HINDU IN THEIR MODE OF LIFE….THE
INTRODUCTION OF THE RELIGION OF THE PROPHET AS A PERMANENT FACTOR IN
THE LIFE OF INDIA COULD NOT BUT MODIFY THE NOTIONS OF THE HINDU
THINKERS. ALTHOUGH IT IS HARDLY NECESSARY TO OBSERVE THAT THE IDEA OF
THE UNITY OF GOD ALWAYS HAS BEEN & STILL IS FAMILIAR TO EVEN
UNEDUCATED HINDUS, IT SEEMS TO BE TRUE THAT THE PROMINENCE GIVEN TO
THE DOCTRINE BY MUSLIM TEACHING ENCOURAGED THE RISE OF RELIGIOUS
SCHOOLS WHICH SOUGHT FOR A CREED CAPABLE OF EXPRESSING MUSLIM &
HINDU DEVOTION ALIKE.” (THE OXFORD HISTORY OF INDIA)

SUFI ISLAM SHRINE TO THEIR SAINT AT
FATEHPUR,SIKRI, INDIA. A DARGAH, OR
PORTAL INTO WORSHIP OF ANY DEITY .

THE MUGHALS (1526 – 1862)
EMPIRE AT ITS LIMITS IN 1700

ZHEERUDDIN MUHAMMAD (BABUR)
DEFEATS LAST DELHI SULTAN AT
PANIPAT APRIL 1526 WITH CANNONS

NASIRUDDIN MUHAMMAD
(HUMAYUN) (1530 – 1540)
• IN THE LONG-ESTABLISHED TRADITION OF ISLAMIC DYNASTIC POLITICS BABUR
WAS FATALLY POISONED (SLOW-ACTING) BY THE MOTHER OF IBRAHIM LODHI,
THE LAST SULTAN OF DELHI, WHOM HE HAD KILLED AT THE BATTLE OF PANIPAT.
• HUMAYUN, AN OPIUM ADDICT AT 22 YEARS, SUCCEEDED HIS FATHER.
• 1539: HUMAYUN WAS CHALLENGED & DEFEATED IN BATTLE BY AFGHAN
WARLORD, SHER KHAN SUR, WHO HAD TAKEN BIHAR & BENGAL PROVINCES &
DEFEATED HIM AGAIN IN 1540. HUMAYUN FLED TO PERSIA. SHER KHAN NOW
OWNED ALL OF NORTHERN INDIA, WITH HIS CAPITAL AT DELHI. BUT HE DIED IN
1545 – BLOWN UP BY HIS OWN EXPLOSIVE CHARGE UNDER THE WALLS OF FORT
KALINJAR – GUNPOWDER WAS STILL AN EXPERIMENTAL WEAPON IN SOME
PLACES! HIS SON & GRANDSON SUCCEEDED BRIEFLY BUT WERE POISONED BY
THEIR UNCLE - JUST IN TIME FOR HUMAYUN TO RETURN FROM PERSIA, WITH A
LARGE BORROWED ARMY.
• “WITHIN A YEAR OF HIS RETURN HOWEVER, HE TRIPPED, LIGHT HEADED FROM
A PIPE OR TWO OF OPIUM, CRACKING HIS HEAD ON THE STONE STAIRS OF HIS
PRIVATE OBSERVATORY, AND, AS ONE OBSERVER PUT IT, ‘STUMBLED OUT OF LIFE
AS HE HAD STUMBLED THROUGH IT.” ( STANLEY WOLPERT)

JALALUDDIN MUHAMMAD
(AKBAR THE GREAT) (1556 -1605)
• AKBAR WAS 13 YEARS OLD & GRANDSON OF BABUR WHEN HE
BECAME EMPEROR, WITH A REGENT, BAYRAM KHAN, WHO
DEFEATED A HINDU ARMY IN NOVEMBER 1556.
• FEARING KHAN’S AMBITIONS, AKBAR’S NURSE, MAHAM ANGA, IN
1562 ARRANGED FOR KHAN TO BE DISMISSED & HERSELF PLACED
IN A POSITION OF POWER. BUT AKBAR WAS NOW 18 YEARS, AND
BEGAN TO SHAPE HIS OWN DESTINY.
• HE GREATLY EXPANDED THE EMPIRE THROUGH MILITARY
CONQUEST USING MODERN MILITARY CONCEPTS: CHAIN OF
COMMAND; THE BEST MILITARY ADVISERS TO DEVISE TACTICS,
USING MODERN MUSKETS & ARTILLERY (THE EMPIRE CAME TO BE
KNOWN AS THE “GUNPOWDER EMPIRE”)

ELEPHANTS PUSHING MUGHAL
CANNONS DRAWN BY BULLOCKS

AKBAR’S REIGN REVIEWED BY
STANLEY WOLPERT.
“ A TOTAL POPULATION OF ABOUT A HUNDRED MILLION, LESS THAN ONE-TENTH
THE DENSITY OF MODERN SOUTH ASIA, & A TOTAL REVENUE DEMAND OF LITTLE
MORE THAN ONE-THIRD THE YIELD OF THE LAND, MEANT THAT THE AVERAGE
INHABITANT OF AKBAR’SS INDIA WAS ECONOMICALLY BETTER OFF THAN HIS
PEASANT HEIRS HAVE SUBSEQUENTLY BEEN. AS FOR THE ELITE COURTIERS,
INDEED ALL MANDSABDHARS (OFFICIALS), THEIR DESCENDANTS WOULD NEVER
AGAIN ATTAIN SUCH AFFLUENCE, ENJOY SO MUCH POWER, OR LIVE IN SUCH
LUXURIOUS SPLENDOUR…. NOT ONLY DID AKBAR’S EFFICIENT ADMINISTRATION
SYSTEM HELP STIMULATE & EXPAND INDIA’S ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT &
TRADE, FOREIGN AS WELL AS DOMESTIC, BUT IT ALSO RESURRECTED ASOKA’S
IMPERIAL IDEA OF BRINGING THE ENTIRE SUBCONTINENT UNDER A SINGLE
‘WHITE UMBRELLA’…. FOR IT WAS NOT AS AN ORTHODOX MUSLIM MONARCH
THAT AKBAR RULED , BUT RATHER AS A DIVINE INDIAN EMPEROR, THE SPIRITUAL
AS WELL AS THE SECULAR FATHER OF HIS PEOPLE. PERHAPS, LIKE THE
PREDISPOSIITION TO A SOCIAL SYSTEM BASED ON HIERARCHY OF ‘CASTES’
WHERE BIRTH ALONE CONFERS HIGH OR LOW STATUS FOR LIFE, SOMETHING IN
THE ‘SOIL’ OR ‘CLIMATE’ OF INDIA MADE ITS POPULAACE MORE AMENABLE TO
ROYAL RULE (RAJ) OF A ‘DIVINELY’ IMPERIAL VARIETY OF GOVERNMENT.”

AKBAR’S REIGN REVIEWED BY INDIAN
HISTORIAN D.P. SINGHAL
“ THE HINDUS GRADUALLY OVERCAME THEIR NATURAL HOSTILITY AGAINST WHAT
HAD COME FROM OUTSIDE IN THE COMPANY OF THE SWORD. SLOWLY
THROUGHOUT INDIA , THE INITIAL CLASH WAS FOLLOWED BY FUSION &
SYNTHESIS. IN LANGUAGE & LITERATURE, SCIENTIFIC & PHILOSOPHIC THOUGHT,
& ART & ARCHITECTURE, A NEW CHARACTER BEGAN TO EMERGE WHICH
REACHED ITS PEAK DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD, ESPECIALLY UNDER AKBAR.
HE INITIATED MEASURES TO BLEND THE TWO COMMUNITIES IN A VARIETY OF
WAYS . HIS DIN-I-ILAHI ( THE DIVINE FAITH) IN WHICH HE SOUGHT TO CREATE A
UNIVERSAL RELIGION, WAS A NOBLE EFFORT. DARA SHIKOH TRANSLATED THE
UPANISHADS INTO PERSIAN, & IF HE, INSTEAD OF HIS YOUNGER BROTHER &
EXECUTIONER, AURANGZEB, HAD COME TO THE THRONE, THE HISTORY OF INDIA
WOULD HAVE BEEN DIFFERENT. BOTH AKBAR & DARA, IN ATTEMPTING TO UNITE
THE TWO CULTURAL GROUPS , WERE FOLLOWING THE MAIN TEACHING OF
ISLAM, WHICH IS UNITY, HUMAN EQUALITY & UNIVERSAL TOLERATION. ISLAM
REJUVENATED INDIAN LIFE, BUT IT DID NOT GIVE RISE TO SUBSTANTIALLY NEW
& ENDURING DOCTRINES IN HINDU CULTURE . A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION MAY BE
THAT INDIAN THOUGHT WAS HIGHLY INTRICATE, WHILST ISLAMIC THOUGHT
WAS SIMPLE & STRAIGHTFORWARD WITH A POWERFUL APPEAL FOR THE
COMMON MAN BUT A LESS STRONG ONE FOR THE INTELLECTUAL.”

THE MUGHAL EMPERORS THAT
FOLLOWED AKBAR IN THE NEXT 100
YEARS
• “ (THEY WERE) UNIVERSAL SYMBOLS OF POWER &
AFFLUENCE, OF TENDERNESS & CRUELTY, OF FEROCITY
& SENSITIVITY, LUXURY LOVING, LICENTIOUS,
SENTIMENTAL, BRUTAL & POETIC, THEY WERE THE
EMBODIMENT OF ALL THOSE EXTREMES
CHARACTERISTIC OF THE INDIAN LIFE –STYLE KNOWN
AS MUGHALS.” (STANLEY WOLPERT)
• THE MUGHALS WOULD RULE INDIA , WHICH AT THE
SAME TIME WAS BEING PENETRATED BY EUROPEANS.
• THE LAST MUGHAL EMPEROR WAS BAHADUR SHAH
ZAFAR, WHO DIED IN 1862, AS A POLITICAL PRISONER
OF THE BRITISH, OF OPIUM ADDICTION.

“ YOU HAVE BROUGHT YOUR
GLORIOUS CROWN/ & PLACED IT ON
THE HEADS OF ALL LOVERS” (Tagore)

THIS SHOULD BE TIME FOR
CONTEMPLATION, SOMOSAS & TEA
“GIVE MY LOVE TO THE TAJ BY MOONLIGHT”
(RABINDRANATH TAGORE)
“FROM THE SECRECY OF THE ROYAL CHAMBER
YOU HAVE BROUGHT YOUR ROYAL CROWN
AND PLACED IT ON THE HEADS OF ALL
LOVERS,FROM DWELLERS IN PALACES TO THOSE
IN THE MEANEST HUTS.
THE MEMORY OF YOUR LOVE HAS SANCTIFIED
THEM ALL.”

1. INTERNET
WIKIPEDIA
• KHALJI DYNASTY
• TUGHLAQ DYNASTY
• TIMUR (THE LAME)
• MUGHAL EMPIRE
• AKBAR
• MUMTAZ MAHAL (EMPRESS CONSORT OF
SHAH JEHAN & LADY OF THE TAJ MAHAL)

• ELLIOT,SIR H.M., EDITED BY JOHN DOWSON.
THE HISTORY OF INDIA, AS TOLD BY ITS OWN
HISTORIANS. THE MUHAMMADAN PERIOD.
PUBLISHED BY LONDON TRUBNER COMPANY
1867-1877. (Online copy at Packard
Humanities Institute – Other Persian texts in
translation)
• DIRK COLLIER. THE GREAT MUGHALS AND
THEIR INDIA. 400 PAGES. $10.78 AT AMAZON.

3. DOCUMENTARIES
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE: DOCUMENTARY ON
INDIA’S GREAT MUGHALS
YOUTUBE
2 HOURS 22 MINUTES

MOVIES
• “ TAJ MAHAL: AN ETERNAL LOVE STORY”
YOUTUBE
• “SECRETS OF THE TAJ MAHAL”
(TV. MOVIE IN ENGLISH, INDIAN CAST, 47
MINUTES. )

LECTURE 5. INDIA & THE BRITISH
EAST INDIA COMPANY (E.I.C.)

E.I.C.’s CORPORATE MISSION
• “ WE STILL TALK ABOUT THE BRITISH CONQUERING INDIA, BUT THAT PHRASE
DISGUISES A MORE SINISTER REALITY. IT WAS NOT THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT
THAT BEGAN SEIZING GREAT CHUNKS OF INDIA IN THE MID-EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY, BUT A DANGEROUSLY UNREGULATED PRIVATE COMPANY
HEADQUARTERED IN ONE SMALL OFFICE, FIVE WINDOWS WIDE, IN
LONDON,AND MANAGED IN INDIA BY A VIOLENT, UTTERLY RUTHLESS &
INTERMITTENTLY MENTALLY UNSTABLE CORPORATE PREDATOR – CLIVE. INDIA’S
TRANSITION TO COLONIALISM TOOK PLACE UNDER A FOR-PROFIT
CORPORATION, WHICH EXISTED ENTIRELY FOR THE PURPOSE OF ENRICHING
INVESTORS.” . …BY 1803, WHEN ITS PRIVATE ARMY HAD GROWN TO NEARLY
200,000 MEN, IT HAD SWIFTLY SUBDUED OR DIRECTLY SEIZED AN ENTIRE
SUBCONTINENT” (WILLIAM DALRYMPLE)
• “ THE MERCHANTS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY WERE GENERALLY GREEDY
AND CORRUPT, FILLING THEIR OWN POCKETS BY CHEATING THE COMPANY & THE
INDIANS. THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO INDIA WERE POLITICAL ANARCHY,
ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION, CRUEL TAXATION, EXTRAVAGANT WARS, UNJUST
INTERVENTION & FORGED TREATIES. LONDON WAS APPALLED AT THIS
TARNISHING OF THE BRITISH NAME.” (D.P. SINGHAL. “INDIA & WORLD
CIVILISATION”)

“HE (EMPEROR JAHANGIR)
APPOINTED ME (SIR THOMAS ROE) A
PLACE ABOVE ALL OTHER MEN”.1615.

MUGHAL EMPEROR JAHANGIR
WRITES A LETTER TO JAMES I OF
ENGLAND IN 1617
“ WHEN YOUR MAJESTY SHALL OPEN THIS LETTER LET YOUR HEART BE AS FRESH AS A SWEET
GARDEN.LET ALL PEOPLE MAKE REVERENCE AT YOUR GATE; LET YOUR THRONE BE ADVANCED
HIGHER; AMONGST THE GREATNESS OF KINGS OF THE PROPHET JESUS; LET YOUR MAJESTY BE
THE GREATEST , AND ALL MONARCHIES DERIVE THEIR COUNSEL & WISDOM FROM YOUR BREAST
AS FROM A FOUNTAIN, THAT THE LAW OF THE MAJESTY OF JESUS MAY REVIVE & FLOURISH
UNDER YOUR PROTECTION….
UPON WHICH ASSURANCE OF YOUR ROYAL LOVE I HAVE GIVEN MY GENERAL COMMAND TO ALL
KINGDOMS & PORTS OF MY DOMINIONS TO RECEIVE ALL THE MERCHANTS OF THE ENGLISH
NATION AS THE SUBJECTS OF MY FRIEND; THAT IN WHAT PLACE SOEVER THEY CHOOSE TO LIVE,
THEY MAY HAVE FREE LIBERTY WITHOUT ANY RESTRAINT; &THEY SHALL HAVE RESIDENCE AT
WHAT PORT SOEVER THEY SHALL ARRIVE , THAT NEITHER PORTUGAL NOR ANY OTHER SHALL
DARE TO MOLEST THEIR QUIET ; & IN WHAT CITY SOEVER THEY SHALL HAVE RESIDENCE. I HAVE
COMMANDED ALL MY GOVERNORS & CAPTAINS TO GIVE THEM FREEDOM ANSWERABLE TO
THEIR DESIRES; TO SELL, BUY. & TRANSPORT INTO THEIR COUNTRY AT THEIR PLEASURE.”
(Dalrymple also notes that the Emperor acknowledged James’ gifts: “hunting dogs – English mastiffs
& Irish greyhounds – an English stagecoach, some Mannerist paintings, an English virginal , and
many crates of red wine)

EAST INDIA COMPANY PRINCIPAL
TRADE ROUTES

FORT ST. GEORGE: EIC TRADING
CENTRE AT MADRAS, COROMANDEL
COAST

EIC GENERAL COURT OF
PROPRIETORS REPRESENTING 200 –
300 COMPANY SHAREHOLDERS
• ‘COURT’ WHERE SHAREHOLDERS COULD MEET - A ‘LITTLE
PARLIAMENT’.
• SOMETIMES CORRUPT, SOMETIMES PEOPLED BY
INDIVIDUALS OF DISREPUTE, SOMETIMES BRILLIANT
DECISIONMAKERS, ALWAYS NOTORIOUS MEETINGS.
• 24 COURT MEMBERS CREATED ‘SPECIAL COMMITTEES’
FOR RESEARCH & ADVICE; ALSO WROTE DIRECTIVES ON
COMMERCIAL, ADMINISTRATIVE , & POLITICAL MATTERS.
• DIRECTIVES WERE HANDED TO MASTERS OF “INDIAMAN”
EIC SHIPS FOR DELIVERY TO COUNCILS CONTROLLING EIC
REGIONAL CENTRES IN INDIA.
• COUNCILS ISSUED INSTRUCTIONS TO CHIEF MERCHANTS
WHO CONTROLLED EIC ‘FACTORIES’ EMPLOYING
FACTORS, CLERKS ETC.

EIC SHAREHOLDERS MEET IN COURT
ROOM, EIC HOUSE 1820

ENGLISH GENTLEWOMEN
DISEMBARKING AT MADRAS
LANDING 1837

EIC H.Q., FORT WILLIAM, CALCUTTA,
ON MUDFLATS OF HOOGHLY RIVER.
ESTABLISHED: JOB CHARNOCK, 1690

UNTIL LATE 18TH CENT. CRUCIAL
SOCIAL DRIVER WAS INTERMARRIAGE
(COMMON LAW) WITH INDIANS
“ THERE WAS EXTENSIVE INTERMARRIAGE THAT SCARCELY A
BRITISH FAMILY WITH LONG CONTACTS WITH INDIA DID NOT
HAVE SOME INDIAN (USUALLY A WOMAN) IN ITS FAMILY…FOR
TWO CENTURIES THE INDIA BORN COULD MOVE FREELY IN
BRITAIN,SETTLE, & GAIN AN EDUCATION & SOCIAL STANDING.
MANY APPEARED IN THE GREATEST FAMILIES, & SOME BECAME
LEADING STATESMEN. ANGLO – INDIANS WERE AMONG THE
PRIME MINISTERS OF BRITAIN & VICEROYS OF INDIA. SUCH
PEOPLE MAY NOT HAVE EMPHASIZED THEIR INDIANNESS. UNLESS
THEY THEMSELVES WERE FROM ROYALTY, FEW INDIAN WOMEN
HAD PERSONAL DOCUMENTS, & THE SENSE OF HISTORY &
LINEAGE OF THEIR ANGLO-INDIAN DESCENDANTS WAS BRITISH
RATHER THAN INDIAN. IN SOME CASES THE MARRIAGES OF
BRITISH MEN TO INDIAN WOMEN WERE NOT EVEN RECORDED , &
IT WAS NOT UNKNOWN FOR INDIAN WIVES TO BE REFUSED A
CHURCH BURIAL.” (GLORIA JEAN MOORE. “ THE ANGLO-INDIAN
VISION”)

MUGHAL EMPIRE SHOWING
ADDITIONS BY EMPEROR AURANGZEB
(1658 – 1707)

INDIA AS A WORLD ECONOMIC
POWER HOUSE TO 1700
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT: INDIA & TOTAL WEST EUROPE (1650 & 1700)
($ MILLION 1990)
1650 1700
INDIA 82550 90750
TOTAL W. EUROPE 73440 81302
(REASON: EXPORTS OF TEXTILES (WORLD MONOPOLY) TO EUROPE, USING
VAST TRANSPORT SYSTEM. INDIAN TEXTILES CLOTHED EUROPE. THIS
WAS STAGE 1 INDUSTRIALISATION: SEE IMPORTANCE OF TEXTILES &
CLOTHING IN EARLY STAGES OF ECONOMIC TAKE-OFF IN SOUTH EAST
ASIA TODAY. INDIA’S MONOPOLY ENDED WITH SLAVE-BASED NORTH
AMERICAN COTTON GOING TO EUROPEAN COTTON MILLS)

EVENTS WHICH RE-SHAPED THE
INDO-PACIFIC FROM 18TH CENTURY
1. “IT WAS THE DEATH OF AURANGZEB IN 1707 THAT
CHANGED EVERYTHING FOR THE COMPANY”
(DALRYMPLE) HE WAS FOLLOWED BY 13 INEFFECTUAL
DYNASTIC EMPERORS, THE LAST ONE ENDING IN 1859
BRITISH POLITICAL PRISON.
2. AFTER 50 YEARS COLONIAL WARS WITH FRANCE,
BRITAIN OBTAINED NAVAL SUPERIORITY IN 1759 & SET
ABOUT PREPARING SIMULTANEOUS SEA BATTLES IN
EUROPE, EAST & WEST INDIES, CHINA SEAS, COASTAL
WATERS OF NORTH & SOUTH AMERICA. 43 LINE OF
BATTLE SHIPS, 55,000 SAILORS & 5300 MARINES.
GREATEST TECHNICAL INNOVATION WAS COPPER-
BOTTOMING OF SHIPS FOR LONG DISTANCE SAILING.
3. ROBERT CLIVE – CLIVE OF INDIA – LEADS EIC.

COPPER PLATING SCHEME FOR 38
GUN ENGLISH MAN-0-WAR

ECONOMIC IMPERATIVES DRIVING
BRITISH GOVERNMENT INTEREST IN
INDIA
BRITAIN’s WAR DEBT AFTER THE 7 YEARS WAR & AMERICAN
REVOLUTION WAS SUBSTANTIAL & IT NEEDED NEW
SOURCES OF REVENUE TO SERVICE ITS DEBT.
• IT TURNED TO EIC & INDIA. EIC HAD INCREASED ITS
TEXTILE EXPORTS TO EUROPE BY 150% BETWEEN 1650 &
1700.
• THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION WAS BEGINNING IN
WESTERN EUROPE (INCL. BRITAIN) BY 1750, INCREASING
ITS GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT BY 25% BETWEEN 1700 &
1750 (INDIA COULD ONLY MANAGE 11% BECAUSE OF
POOR LEADERSHIP FROM MUGHAL EMPERORS, WHICH
ALSO LED TO BREAKUP IN THE EMPIRE)

EIC MAJOR GENERAL ROBERT CLIVE
LEADING EIC ARMY AT BATTLE OF
PLASSY vs. MUGHAL ARMY 1757

ROBERT CLIVE’S GENIUS WAS TO
LEAD INDIAN TROOPS IN EUROPEAN
FORMATIONS TO VICTORIES
SOMETHING CLIVE HAD RECOGNISED WITH HIS FIRST COMMAND OF A
COMPANY OF EIC SEPOYS WAS THEIR ABILITY TO FIGHT IN DISCIPLINED
EUROPEAN WAR FIGHTING FORMATIONS , IF CORRECTLY DRILLED &
INSPIRINGLY LED FROM THE FRONT. THE TROOPS CAME FROM
VILLAGES,TOWNS, CLANS, TRIBES & NATIONS (IN THE CASE OF NEPALESE)
WHO, FOR MILLENIA, HAD FILLED THE RANKS OF THE ARMIES OF
EMPERORS , KINGS, RULERS & WARLORDS – WHERE MILITARY SERVICE
WAS A BADGE OF HONOUR. IF THEY RESPECTED THE COURAGE &
LEADERSHIP OF THEIR EUROPEAN COMMANDERS, THEY BESTOWED
UPON HIM THE TITLE BAHADUR (BRAVE ONE). THE BATTLE OF PLASSY
WOULD BE THE MOST CONCLUSIVE EXAMINATION OF ABILITIES OF CLIVE
& HIS SEPOYS OF THE EIC. THIS TRADITION WOULD CONTINUE: ARTHUR
WELLESLY (LATER WELLINGTON OF WATERLOO) “WON HIS SPURS” WITH
THE EIC AT THE SIEGE OF SERINGAPATNAM. MOST OF THE BEST BRITISH
GENERALS IN WORLD WARS 1 & 2 “WON THEIR SPURS” EARLY IN THEIR
CAREERS, LEADING INDIAN UNITS (AUSTRALIA’S OWN “BIRDY” -
WILLIAM BIRDWOOD - IN WORLD WAR I, SERVED WITH DISTINCTION IN
INDIA)THE EIC ARMY (254,000 VOLUNTEERS) WOULD FIGHT 25 MAJOR &
MINOR WARS TO EXTEND EIC INFLUENCE FROM 1744 TO 1858.

EIC GAINS AFTER THE BATTLE OF
PLASSY
• “PLASSY ALLOWED THE EIC TO BEGIN SIEZING MUCH OF THE SURPLUS - A PIECE
OF FINANCIAL HAPPENSTANCE THAT WOULD PROVIDE FOR THE COMPANY’S
RESOURCES IT WOULD NEED TO DEFEAT A SUCCESSION OF RIVALS UNTIL THEY
FINALLY SIEZED THE MUGHAL CAPITAL OF DELHI IN 1803. THE COMPANY WAS
NOW NO LONGER SIMPLY ONE OF A NUMBER OF EUROPEAN TRADING
COMPANIES COMPETING FOR INDIAN MARKETS & PRODUCTS. RATHER, IT
FOUND THAT IT HAD BECOME A KINGMAKER & AN AUTONOMOUS POWER IN ITS
OWN RIGHT. IT WAS NOT JUST THAT THE EIC HAD ASSISTED IN A PALACE COUP
FOR WHICH IT HAD BEEN VERY WELL PAID. WITH THIS VICTORY THE WHOLE
BALANCE OF POWER IN INDIA HAD NOW SHIFTED.” (DALRYMPLE)
• AN OUTCOME OF CLIVE’S VICTORY OVER THE MUGHAL NAWAB WAS THAT HE
RECEIVED THE KEYS TO THE NAWAB’S TREASURY – VALUED AT $316 MILLION
(TODAY’S MONEY). CLIVE TROUSERED $10 MILLION; $100 MILLION WENT AS
BOUNTY PAYMENTS TO THE EIC ARMY & NAVY (KNOWN AS THE ‘PRIZE FUND’
TO COMPENSATE FOR LOW PAY). THE REST WENT TO DIRECTORS IN LONDON -
$500,000 EACH.
• CLIVE WOULD BECOME THE EIC’s WEALTHIEST NABOB – A BILLIONAIRE AMONG
MANY MILLIONAIRE NABOBS.

THE PYBUS FAMILY. A NABOB’S
RETURN FROM INDIA, FORTUNE
MADE.

1793: CHARTER ACT. BRITISH
GOVERNMENT STEPS IN
• 1773. IN RETURN FOR SAVING COMPANY FROM BANKRUPTCY,
THE GOVERNMENT WAS GIVEN POWER TO REGULATE EIC
ACTIVITIES IN INDIA.
• 1793.GOVERNMENT ABOLISHED CORPORATE STRUCTURE,
IMPROVED PAY SCALES, MADE SENIOR STAFF “COVENANTED”,
(PERMANANCY) & RESPONSIBLE FOR POLICY & ADMINISTRATION
OF COMPANY AS WELL AS CIVIL SERVICE IN COMMUNITIES.
HALFWAY TO FULL CONTROL AFTER 1858.
• 3 COMPANY PRESIDENCIES ( CALCUTTA, MADRAS, BOMBAY)
SUPERVISED BY GOVERNOR GENERAL, WITH CONTROL OVER
ARMY & NAVY.
• MADE EIC SERVICE SOUGHT AFTER BY WEALTHY FAMILIES’ SONS,
RECRUITED & GIVEN RIGOROUS EDUCATION (EG: LEARN 3
ORIENTAL LANGUAGES). THOSE WHO DID NOT PASS OFFERED
POSTINGS IN EIC ARMY, AFTER OFFICER CADETSHIPS.

OFFICER CADETS AT EIC MILITARY
SEMINARY, ADDISCOMBE, 1800s

1858. QUEEN VICTORIA’S
PROCLAMATION ENDING EIC (1)
• AS THE 19TH CENTURY BEGAN & THE YEARS PASSED, MORE &
MORE BRITONS CAME TO INDIA, BUT THE GULF BETWEEN THE
BRITISH BORN & THE INDIAN BORN WIDENED. MORE
DANGEROUSLY, THE OFFICERS THE COMPANY TRAINED FOR
MILITARY COMMAND WERE INSTILLED WITH BRITISH CLASS
CULTURE & RACIST SUPERIORITY OF “WHITES” OVER MIXED RACE
OR “NATIVES”.
• “ IN THOSE DAYS (BEFORE 1786), THE SAHIBS COULD SPEAK THE
LANGUAGE MUCH BETTER THAN THEY DO NOW, & THEY MIXED
WITH US…THESE PADRE SAHIBS HAVE DONE, & ARE STILL DOING
MANY THINGS TO ESTRANGE THE BRITISH OFFICERS FROM THE
SEPOYS…ONE SAHIB TOLD US THAT HE NEVER KNEW WHAT TO
SAY TO US. THE SAHIBS ALWAYS KNEW WHAT TO SAY , & HOW TO
SAY IT, WHEN I WAS A YOUNG SOLDIER.”
(JEMADAR SITARAM PANDEY 63RD BENGAL NATIVE INFANTRY , EIC
ARMY . 1812. IN HIS MEMOIRS)

1858 ENDING OF THE EIC (2)
• THE BENGAL ARMY OF THE EIC COMPRISED 123,000 SEPOYS & 23,000
EUROPEANS (INCL. LEASED BRITISH REGIMENTS)
• “BY 1857 THE INDISCIPLINE OF THE BENGAL ARMY WAS NOTORIOUS. IN
FEBRUARY OF THAT YEAR, BEFORE THE FIRST NEWS OF THE CARTRIDGE
QUESTION HAD REACHED BRITAIN, THE UNITED SERVICES GAZETTE DESCRIBES
THE BENGAL SEPOY AS A ‘LACKADAISICAL DISCONTENTED IDLER, PROMPT TO
SIEZE EXCUSES FOR REFUSING TO DO HIS DUTY, & ABSOLUTELY RENDERING THE
PRESENCE OF EUROPEANS NECESSARY …TO KEEP HIM TO HIS ALLEGIANCE.”
(SAUL DAVID. “THE INDIAN MUTINY. 1857) ( ANY BASIC ANALYSIS OF MILITARY
COMMAND TELLS YOU THIS IS A SURE SIGN OF AN IRREDEEMABLE DIVIDE
BETWEEN BRITISH EDUCATED OFFICERS & THE SEPOYS WHO ARE MOSTLY HIGH
CASTE HINDUS)
• 1806. ARMY OF MADRAS, VELLORE, MUTINIED,KILLING 100 BRITISH OFFICERS &
MEN. LUNATIC ORDER BY COMMANDER, FOR SEPOYS TO REMOVE RELGIOUS
IDENTIFIERS: BEARDS, TURBANS, CASTE MARKS, EAR RINGS ETC. FOR
DISOBEDIENCE 2 LONG SERVING INDIAN N.C.OS. WERE SINGLED OUT & GIVEN
900 LASHES, CRIPPLING THEM.

• THE CHOICE OF VICEROY IN LORD DALHOUSIE WAS AIMED AT: “ …
(PRESENTING) A GROWING SELF-CONFIDENCE OF THE BRITISH IN
INDIA TO IMPART A CERTAIN ARROGANCE TO OFFICIAL
BENEVOLENCE & A CERTAIN HARDNESS TO THE TONE OF
GOVERNMENT”.
• IN BRINGING RAILWAYS, DALHOUSIE CONSULTED NO INDIAN &
RODE ROUGHSHOD OVER PROERTY RIGHTS ETC. THERE WAS FEAR
IN THE HINDU & MUSLIM COMMUNITIES ABOUT RELIGIOUS
RIGHTS & BRITISH LAW.
• HE STOLE THE KOH-I-NOOR DIAMOND TO GIVE IT TO QUEEN
VICTORIA TO INGRATIATE HIMSELF. NOW IN THE BRITISH CROWN
– WITH A CURSE ON IT ?
• HIS INTELLIGENCE AGENTS KNEW THAT A MASSIVE UPRISING WAS
DEVELOPING AGAINST BRITISH RULE. THE RECORDS SHOW THAT
DALHOUSIE & SENIOR EIC OFFICERS CASHED IN & LEFT IN 1856.

• LONDON DECIDED TO ISSUE THE ARMY OF BENGAL WITH 12,000 .577
CALIBRE ENFIELD RIFLE. IT WAS LOADED USING A PAPER CARTRIDGE
CONTAINING POWDER & BALL , THEN FIXED WITH A RAMROD.
• CARTIDGE WAS COATED WITH 5 PARTS TALLOW, 5 PARTS STEARINE, & 1
PART WAX. (WOOLWICH ARSENAL ‘LOST’ ITS RECORDS ON THE
CARTRIDGE, BUT GOOGLE ‘TALLOW’ FOR MANY ALTERNATIVES).
• WHILST THE ORIGINAL FIRING INSTRUCTION WAS FOR THE RIFLEMAN TO
TEAR OPEN THE CARTRIDGE WITH HIS TEETH , THE ARMY OF BENGAL
QUICKLY ISSUED A NEW FIRING ORDER SAYING THAT THE CARTRIDGE
COULD BE TORN WITH THE LEFT HAND.
• THE RUMOUR ABOUT THE TALLOW CONTENT – PIG & CATTLE FAT – HAD
STARTED IN A CONVERSATION ON 22 JANUARY 1857 BETWEEN A
BRAHMIN SEPOY & A LOW-CASTE WORKER IN THE DUM-DUM ARSENAL:
“YOU THINK MUCH OF YOUR CASTE, BUT WAIT A LITTLE, THE SAHIB-
LOGUE WILL MAKE YOU BITE CARTRIDGES SOAKED IN COW & PORK FAT,
& THEN WHERE WILL YOUR CASTE BE?”

THE .577 LEE ENFIELD MUSKET
CARTRIDGE OF 1857

29 MARCH 1857: BRAHMIN SEPOY MANGAL PANDY,
INTOXICATED ON BHANG ATTACKED SERGEANT
MAJOR HEWSON WITH SABRE & MUSKET. SUBDUED.
PANDY & FELLOW SOLDIER, 34TH NATIVE INFANTRY,
BENGAL ARMY, WERE HANGED + 7 COMPANIES OF
34TH WERE DISBANDED FOR “PASSIVE MUTINY”.
(UNLAWFUL ORDER BECAUSE EIC ARMY A PRIVATE
ARMY NOT SUBJECT TO ARTICLES OF WAR OR
SUBJECT TO MUTINY ACT. A “MUTINY” LEGAL
RULING WAS NEEDED IN ORDER TO ACTIVATE BRITISH
LINE REGIMENTS STILL STATIONED IN CRIMEA, READY
FOR ACTION IN INDIA, UNDER BRITISH MUTINY ACT,
IF NEEDED.

• AT MEERUT, 30 MILES FROM DELHI, BUT STILL ARMY OF BENGAL,
TOP REGIMENTS : 2 INFANTRY REGIMENTS & 1 CAVALRY
REGIMENT, REFUSED AN ORDER TO DEMONSTRATE THE NEW .577
ENFIELD LOADING DRILL – BUT USING THE LEFT HAND.
• 85 SKIRMISHERS – ALL TOP SOLDIERS – TRIED, DISHONOURED
(ALONG WITH EXTENDED FAMILIES & THEIR VILLAGES), & 10
YEARS HARD LABOUR. ONE SOLDIER WAS A 40 YEAR VETERAN
WHO ALSO LOST HIS PENSION
• SUNDAY, 10 MAY 1857, THE 3RD CAVALRY REGIMENT FREED THEIR
HEROES, KILLED THE OFFICERS & FAMILIES & RODE FOR DELHI
WHERE THEY KILLED MILITARY & CIVILIANS ALIKE.
• TWO OF THE VERY BEST ARMIES IN THE WORLD WERE NOW AT
WAR WITH EACH OTHER. WHEN IT ENDED THE DITCH BETWEEN
INDIANS & THE BRITISH WOULD BECOME A CHASM, EACH WITH
ITS OWN MYTHOLOGY., AND UNRECONCILABLE

1858: THE BAD END OF THE EAST
INDIA COMPANY: INDIANS BLOWN
FROM CANNONS BY BRITISH

1. INTERNET
WIKIPEDIA
ROBERT CLIVE
JOB CHARNOCK
WIKISOURCE
CHARTER GRANTED BY QUEEN ELIZABETH TO THE EAST INDIA
COMPANY
THE DIARY OF SAMUEL PEPYS
BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY
DR. IAN DE MELLOW
U3A LECTURE 4. 2015. “ THE FIRST WAR OF INDIAN INDEPENDENCE
(THE INDIAN MUTINY OR THE GREAT MUTINY)”

2. BOOKS
WILLIAM DALRYMPLE: “THE ANARCHY: THE
RELENTLESS RISE OF THE EAST INDIA
COMPANY”
The book is available everywhere.
ANTHONY WILD: “THE EAST INDIA COMPANY:
TRADE & CONQUEST FROM 1600.”
Published 1999. Should be available in most
libraries.

3.
BBC TWO
“THE BIRTH OF EMPIRE: THE EAST INDIA
COMPANY”
2 EPISODES EACH OF 1 HOUR
(Episode 1 is on the Internet now)

MOVIES
“ THE WARRIOR QUEEN OF JHANSI”
(2019)
In English. Made for wide audience about a
remarkable warrior woman by a British
filmmaker. Spectacular.

LECTURE 6. INDIA & THE BRITISH
RAJ

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU: “THE
CONTRADICTIONS OF BRITISH RULE”
“INDIA WAS UNDER AN INDUSTRIAL-CAPITALIST REGIME BUT HER
ECONOMY WAS LARGELY THAT OF THE PRE-CAPITALIST PERIOD, MINUS
MANY OF THE WEALTH-PRODUCING ELEMENTS OF THAT PRE-CAPITALIST
ECONOMY. SHE BECAME A PASSIVE AGENT OF MODERN INDUSTRIAL
CAPITALISM, SUFFERING ALL ITS ILLS & WITH HARDLY ANY OF ITS
ADVANTAGES – THE WORLD MARKET THAT THE NEW CAPITALISM WAS
BUILDING UP WOULD HAVE, IN ANY EVENT, AFFECTED INDIA’S
ECONOMIC SYSTEM. THE SELF SUFFICIENT VILLAGE COMMUNITY, WITH
ITS TRADITIONAL DIVISION OF LABOUR, COULD NOT HAVE CONTINUED
IN ITS OLD FORM. BUT THE CHANGE THAT TOOK PLACE WAS NOT A
NORMAL DEVELOPMENT & IT DISINTEGRATED THE WHOLE ECONOMIC &
STRUCTURAL BASIS OF INDIAN SOCIETY. A SYSTEM WHICH HAD SOCIAL
SANCTIONS & CONTROLS BEHIND IT & WAS PART OF THE PEOPLE’S
CULTURAL HERITAGE WAS SUDDENLY & FORCIBLY CHANGED & ANOTHER
SYSTEM, ADMINISTERED FROM OUTSIDE THE GROUP , WAS IMPOSED.
INDIA DID NOT COME INTO A WORLD MARKET BUT BECAME A COLONIAL
& AGRICULTURAL APPENDAGE OF THE BRITISH STRUCTURE.”

QUEEN VICTORIA’S PROCLAMATION
TO ‘PRINCES, CHIEFS & PEOPLE OF
INDIA’ 1 NOVEMBER 1858
“ WHEN BY THE BLESSING OF PROVIDENCE, INTERNAL
TRANQUILITY SHALL BE RESTORED, IT IS OUR
EARNEST DUTY TO STIMULATE THE PEACEFUL
INDUSTRY OF INDIA, TO PROMOTE WORKS OF PUBLIC
UTILITY AND IMPROVEMENT AND TO ADMINISTER
ITS GOVERNMENT FOR THE BENEFIT OF ALL OUR
SUBJECTS RESIDENT THEREIN. IN THEIR PROSPERITY
WILL BE OUR STRENGTH; IN THEIR CONTENTMENT
OUR SECURITY, & IN THEIR GRATITUDE OUR BEST
REWARD. AND MAY GOD OF ALL POWER GRANT TO
US, & TO THOSE IN AUTHORITY UNDER US, STRENGTH
TO CARRY OUT OUR WISHES FOR THE GOOD OF OUR
PEOPLE.”

VICTIMS OF THE GREAT FAMINE OF
INDIA. 1876 -1878

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)
FOR INDIA, BRITAIN & WEST EUROPE
($ PER PERSON)
1750 1850
INDIA 625 560 6.6% DECLINE
BRITAIN 1100 2433 146.7% INCR.
WEST EUROPE 1100 1581 43.7% INCR.
( SHOWS CONTRAST OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN
BRITAIN & WESTERN EUROPE & INDIA’S INABILITY TO
MAINTAIN WORLD LEADERSHIP IN RAW &
PROCESSED COTTON – DUE TO AMERICAN
COMPETITION INTO EUROPEAN PROCESSORS. EAST
INDIA COMPANY HAD TURNED INDIAN EXPORTERS
TO OPIUM & SUGAR)

BRITISH BURRAH SAHIBS AT
“ELEVENSES” ON THE LAWN 1902

MEMSAHIBS ENJOYING THE
MOUNTAIN AIR. SHIMLA. 1902

“ PRECEDENCE IN INDIA WAS MOST IMPORTANT. THE STRESS ON
PROTOCOL & HIERARCHY THAT CHARACTERISED THE BRITISH RAJ
HAD ITS ROOTS AS MUCH IN THE HINDU & MOSLEM CULTURE AS
IN THE BRITISH.” (CHARLES ALLEN)
• THE ELITE INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE RECRUITED FROM TOP BRITISH
PRIVATE SCHOOLS & UNIVERSITIES.
• LOWER DEPARTMENTS (POLICE & FOREST SERVICES – “JUNGLE
WALLAHS”) CAME FROM POOR WHITES IN INDIA & LOWER
BRITISH CLASSES.
• BRITONS EMPLOYED IN COMMERCE (“BOX WALLAHS”) LOOKED
DOWN ON
• A “WARRANT OF PRECEDENCE” DOCUMENTED STATUS WITH
ODD RANKINGS EG: SANITARY COMMISSIONERS RANKED HIGHER
THAN GOVERNMENT SOLICITORS.
• PRECEDENCE RANKINGS OFTEN HAD SEVERE SOCIAL IMPACTS ON
NEWLY ARRIVED WIVES & CHILDREN OF BRITONS JOINING
GOVERNMENT SERVICE.

CLUB IN INDIA: LOCATION OF A RAJ
CLUB (1920s: ‘INDIANS NOT
PERMITTED’) IN “PASSAGE TO INDIA”

THE CHASM BETWEEN BRITON &
INDIAN
“ THE BRITISH CLUB SOON EMERGED AS THE INSULAR NUCLEUS OF
EUROPEAN SOCIETY, & IT WAS TO RETAIN ITS MID-VICTORIAN
MANNERISMS & PECULIAR MORALITY ON INDIAN SOIL LONG
AFTER EDWARDIAN ATTITUDES & FRESH IDEAS LIBERATED
LONDON FROM THE NARROW FORMALISM & RIGIDITY OF SUCH
INHIBITING MORES. DISTRUST, FRUSTRATION & FEAR FED UPON
ONE ANOTHER THROUGHOUT THE ERA OF CROWN RULE, AS THE
LIBERAL HOPES & IDEALIST DREAMS OF BENTINCK & MACAULAY
MELTED IN THE CAULDRON OF WAR WHOSE AFTERMATH
BROUGHT PROGRESS WITHOUT CIVILIZATION, CONFIRMING ALL
OF INDIA’S TRADITIONAL DISUNITIES & CONVERTING THE
SUBCONTINENT INTO A LAND HELD HOSTAGE BY THE MERCILESS
MARTIAL FORCE OF THE WORLD’S FOREMOST POWER.”
(STANLEY WOLPERT. “ A NEW HISTORY OF INDIA”)

RAILWAYS OF THE RAJ
• 1920: INDIA HAD 35,000 ROUTE MILES OF RAILWAY (5TH BIGGEST IN WORLD).
• NEEDED FOR CHEAP EFFICIENT TRANSPORT OF GOODS ( ALSO DURING
FAMINES).
• AS PEOPLE MOVER MOSTLY FOR RAJ & DEPENDANTS UNTIL 1920s
• BRITAIN EXPORTED TECHNOLOGY, ROLLINGSTOCK,RAILS, EXPERTISE,
MANAGEMENT. LOWER SKILLED JOBS WERE ANGLO-INDIANS. INDIANS ONLY FOR
LABOURING.
• INVESTMENT SERVED BY JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES, GOVERNMENT GUARANTEED
5% ON INVESTMENT.
• BY 1870s RETURNS DROPPED TO 3.5%, FORCING GOVERNMENT INTO
PARTNERSHIPS.
• 1924: GOVERNMENT OF INDIA NATIONALISED RAILWAYS.
• EACH YEAR GOVERNMENT HAD TO FIND 50 MILLION POUNDS TO MEET
ORIGINAL GUARANTEES OF 5%. THIS COULD ONLY COME FROM TAXATION.
BRITAIN HAD TO DEVISE OTHER INGENIOUS WAYS OF RAISING TAXES TO PAY FOR
INDIA DEBT (EG: “HOME CHARGES”) – MOSTLY A TAX OF SOME KIND – SEVERELY
INHIBITED INDIAN ECONOMIC GROWTH.

THROUGHOUT EMPIRE THE RACE
TRAINS WERE ALWAYS “SPECIALS”

PLANTATIONS OF THE RAJ
• EAST INDIA COMPANY (EIC) GAVE BRITISH INVESTORS
FRANCHISES AS INDIGO PLANTATION OWNERS – LED TO
LONDON SPECULATION - LED TO BANKRUPTCIES IN 1847 &
PRICE COLLAPSE. FARMERS WENT ON STRIKE ( THE “BLUE
MUTINY”) 1859-1862. INDIAN LANDOWNERS KILLED
INDIAN FARMERS. 1862, BRITISH MILITARY CAPTURED
STRIKING FARMERS & HUNG THEM.
• 1843: EIC BOTANIST, ROBERT FORTUNE, STOLE CHINESE
TEA PLANTS. TEA GROWING ESTABLISHED IN INDIA 1873.
BY 1900, 295 INDIAN TEA PLANTATIONS (OWNED BY
BRITONS) PRODUCED 6.3 MILLION POUNDS OF TEA FOR
BRITAIN & WORLD MARKETS.
• 1830s BRITISH COFFEE GROWERS IN SOUTH INDIA.

ANGOORIE TEA ESTATE INDIA
ESTABLISHED 1872: VERY HIGH
GRADE TEA BUSHES IN FOREGROUND

INDIAN COTTON & JUTE PRODUCTION
& THE RAJ
• 1890: INDIAN COTTON INDUSTRY 6TH LARGEST IN THE
WORLD AFTER BRITAIN, U.S., FRANCE, GERMANY &
RUSSIA, BUT MAJOR SETBACKS: REDUCED YARN MARKETS
IN 1893, CHINA & JAPAN; 1894 MANCHESTER MILLS
LOBBIED PARLIAMENT TO HIKE EXCISE ON IMPORTED
INDIAN YARN; 1895. BUBONIC PLAGUE IN INDIA;
MANCHESTER LOBBIED FOR EVEN HIGHER EXCISE;
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA TRIED TO MANIPULATE
CURRENCY, CAUSING COLLAPSE IN EXPORT PRICES.
INDIAN COTTON INDUSTRY DECLINED FROM HERE ON.
• 1895. RARE INSTANCE OF BRITISH ENTREPRENEUR +
INDIAN FINANCIER IN PARTNERSHIP ESTABLISHED JUTE
INDUSTRY – INDIAN DOMINATION OF WORLD TRADE IN
JUTE TODAY.

SCOTLAND (JUTE & INDIA).
INDIAN JUTE USED IN DUNDEE MILLS
.

FIRST CANAL BUILT WITH BRITISH
CAPITAL, GANGES RIVER (BY 1890, 12
MILL. HEC. IRRIG. - WORLD HIGHEST)

BRITAIN SUPPORTED TATA AS
STRATEGIC STEEL MAKING RESERVE
IN CASE OF WAR WITH GERMANY

STEAMSHIPS OWNED BY
ENTREPRENEUR DWARAKANATH
TAGORE LOADING ON HOOGHLY R.

INDIA IN WORLD WAR I
“ THE BRITISH ARMY IS TRIBAL TO AN EXTREME DEGREE; SOME OF
ITS REGIMENTS HAVE HISTORIES WHICH GO BACK TO THE 17TH
CENTURY, WHEN MODERN ARMIES WERE ONLY BEGINNING TO
TAKE SHAPE FROM THE FEUDAL HOSTS OF WARRIORS WHOSE
FOREBEARS HAD ENTERED WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE
INVASIONS THAT OVERTHREW THE ROMAN EMPIRE. I HAVE
ENCOUNTERED THE SAME WARRIOR VALUES OF THE TRIBE IN
MANY OTHER ARMIES , HOWEVER, OVER THE YEARS SINCE I FIRST
JOINED SANDHURST IN MY YOUTH….I HAVE SENSED IT STRONGLY
AMONG INDIAN OFFICERS, ABOVE ALL THEIR QUICKNESS TO
INSIST THAT THEY ARE RAJPUTS OR DOGRAS, DESCENDANTS OF
THE INVADERS WHO CONQUERED INDIA BEFORE ITS HISTORY HAD
BEGUN TO BE WRITTEN.”
(JOHN KEEGAN. “A HISTORY OF WARFARE”. 1993)

BRITAIN’s RELIANCE ON ITS INDIAN
TROOPS IN WORLD WAR I
• KITCHENER CALCULATED THAT BRITAIN NEEDED 70 DIVISIONS TO FIGHT
ALONGSIDE 1.1 MILL. FRENCH & 80,000 RUSSIANS AGAINST 1.5 MILL.
GERMANS IN INDUSTRIALISED WARFARE. IT COULD ONLY MUSTER 6
DIVISIONS (150,000) IN 1914, WITH LIMITED AMMUNITION: (BRITISH
EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (BEF). BETWEEN AUGUST/DECEMBER 1914, LOST
96,000 BEF KILLED/WOUNDED (64%).
• KITCHENER ABLE TO RAISE 100,000 BRITONS & RAPIDLY TRAIN FOR
TRENCH WARFARE.
• DEPLOYED INDIAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (IEF) OF 150,000 BATTLE
TESTED VETERANS OF SMALL WARS. GIVEN NEW LEE-ENFIELD .303
RIFLES FOR FIRST TIME ON LANDING IN FRANCE. POSTED TO YPRES
SALIENT OCTOBER 1914. HEAVY RAIN TURNED YPRES INTO SWAMP
(BUSTED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS) & MIN. TEMP. DOWN TO 1 DEGREE C.
• “ THEY’VE BEEN TRANSPORTED TO THE WESTERN FRONT. ITS WET &
FREEZING COLD. THEY’RE WRITING FROM THE TRENCHES: ‘ …THIS IS LIKE
THE MAHABARATA …. WE ARE BEING MOWN DOWN LIKE BULLOCKS IN
THE FIELD.”

47TH SIKHS ASSAULT ON GERMAN
TRENCHES: “WE ARE BEING MOWN
DOWN LIKE BULLOCKS IN THE FIELDS”

I.E.F. TRANSFERRED FOR NEW
MESOPOTAMIAN CAMPAIGN. 1915
• CAMPAIGN WOULD USE RIVERS TO CAPTURE MAIN CITIES IN
NORTH & THEN SOUTH TO ARABIA VIA KUWAIT.
• PORT OF BASRA TO BE BASE, POOR CHOICE:
1. SUPPLY SHIPS TOOK 10 DAYS UNLOADING.
2. LAND BASED MOTOR TRANSPORT FREQUENTLY BROKE DOWN.
3. NO WATER CARTS FOR TROOPS - CAUSING DEHYDRATION.
4. RELIANCE ON NATIVE WATER CRAFT TO MOVE MEN, HORSES,
SUPPLIES. A MAJOR TRAGEDY WHEN TROPICAL DISEASES HIT
TROOPS OVERWHELMING STEAMER CRAFT.
• OF 27,000 WHO DIED IN CAMPAIGN, 14,000 ( 52%) DIED OF
DISEASE (EG: 3000 WOUNDED AT BATTLE OF CTESIPHON HAD TO
BE FERRIED 600 KILOMETRES TO BASRA)

STEAMER ON TIGRIS: “STATE OF ART”
USED AS GUNBOATS/ MEDICAL EVAC.

RIFLEMAN GABAR SINGH NEGI. 1ST
INDIAN VICTORIA CROSS IN W.W.1

INDIA’S GIFT TO THE RAJ IN WORLD
WAR 1
• 1 MILLION SERVED IN ARMED FORCES
OVERSEAS.
• 74,000 DIED.
• 67,000 WOUNDED.
• INDIA’S GOLD RESERVES DROPPED BY 43% TO
DIVERT THIS TO BRITAIN’S GOLD RESERVES TO
PROP UP POST WAR ECONOMY.
• WAR COST INDIA 146 MILLION POUNDS
STERLING (14 BILLION POUNDS TODAY)

INDIA’S GIFT TO RAJ 1931 TO PROPUP
GOLD RESERVES: 25 MILL. POUNDS
STERLING/ FARMERS’ GOLD ASSETS

BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1918
• BRITAIN EMERGED FROM WORLD WAR 1 AS THE
WORLD’S ONLY SUPER-POWER.
• IT WAS BASED ON THE WEALTH OF ITS EMPIRE,
WHICH WAS SUFFERING FROM TERMINAL SCLEROSIS.
• 1934 JAPANESE GENERAL IN U.S. STAFF COLLEGE
COURSE SAID: “THE BRITISH EMPIRE IS AN OLD MAN”
& WOULD LEAD JAPAN INTO THE SWIFTEST WIPING
OUT OF ALL EUROPEAN IMPERIAL POWERS IN ASIA-
PACIFIC REGION, IN MILITARY HISTORY, IN A FEW
MONTHS IN WORLD WAR 2

SCRAGGY HILL TAKEN BY 4/10TH
GURKHAS: IMPHAL BATTLE. WHICH
STOPPED JAPANESE INVADING INDIA

WORLD WAR 2. INDIA’S FINAL GIFT
TO THE RAJ
• 2.5 MILLION INDIANS SERVED THE BRITISH
EMPIRE IN WORLD WAR 2.
• 87,000 WERE KILLED.
• 34,354 WERE WOUNDED

INTERNET
WIKIPEDIA
ROBERT FORTUNE
HISTORY OF RAIL TRANSPORT IN INDIA
GREAT DEPRESSION IN INDIA
WIKISOURCE
Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs
and people of India
OTHER
Ideologies of the Raj. Thomas R. Metcalf
Dwarakanath Tagore – India’s Industrious Pioneer. Akshay
Chavan

2. BOOKS
• LAWRENCE JAMES. “RAJ. THE MAKING &
UNMAKING OF BRITISH INDIA.”
Amazon. Paperback. $9.59. available in most
libraries.
• E. M. FORSTER. “A PASSAGE TO INDIA”
Available almost anywhere.

3. DOCUMENTARIES
“BRITISH INDIA”
(A HISTORY OF BRITISH INDIA ON PRIME VIDEO
AVAILABLE THROUGH AMAZON)
(IN 24 EPISODES)

MOVIES
• “GANDHI” THE RICHARD ATTENBOROUGH
CLASSIC. ON DVD ANYWHERE.
• “A PASSAGE TO INDIA” DAVID LEAN’S
ADAPTATION OF E M FORSTER’S BOOK (READ
THE BOOK FIRST: A BRILLIANT
INTERPRETATION OF BRITISH INDIA IN THE
1920s)

LECTURE 7. THE REPUBLIC OF
INDIA: BUILDING THE FOUNDATION

BOMBAY UNIVERSITY: CRADLE OF
NATIONALIST PIONEERS
• MODELLED ON UNIVERSITY OF LONDON;
EPICENTRE OF PROGRESSIVE LIBERAL IDEAS IN
ECONOMICS, POLITICS, WOMEN’S ISSUES, ETC.
• OFFERED LICENTIATES IN MEDICINE, BACHELOR
OF ARTS. LATER LEGAL STUDIES.
• MARRIED BRITISH SCHOLASTICISM WITH HINDU
INTELLECTUALISM = RAO BAHADUR.
• THESE LIBERAL, NATIONALIST PIONEERS
WALKED A FINE LINE BETWEEN DEEP DISTRUST
OF BRITISH BY REST OF INDIAN SOCIETY WHICH
OPPOSED SPREAD OF WESTERN CULTURE.

INDIAN NATIONALISM: RISE OF THE
“MODERATES”: GOVIND RANADE
• “ MOST MATURE, MOST PRESCIENT & PROBABLY
MOST INFLUENTIAL MAHARASHTRIAN OF HIS TIME”.
• 1864: NEWLY ESTABLISHED ANGLO-HINDU LEGAL
SYSTEM ( THE SHARIAT FROM MOGHUL TIMES
COVERED MOST MUSLIMS).
• FINALLY A HIGH COURT JUDGE, RANADE WAS A
BRILLIANT LEGAL SCHOLAR, BOMBAY UNIVERSITY.
• RAJ OFFICIALDOM DISTRUSTED HIM & KEPT HIM AS
AN OUTSIDER, ESPECIALLY WHEN HE WROTE ABOUT
THE ECONOMIC RIP-OFFS IMPOSED BY RAJ
IMPERIALISM ( RANADE WAS A BRILLIANT
ECONOMIST TOO!)

JUSTICE MAHADEV GOVIND RANADE:
NATIONALIST PIONEER

INDIAN NATIONALIST PIONEERS:
GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE
• “ THE RANADE-GOKHALE SCHOOL OF NATIONALISM ALSO
INSISTED UPON THE NEED FOR INDIANS TO REFORM
THEIR OWN SOCIAL & RELIGIOUS WARS & THE
CONTINUING SUBJUGATION OF WOMEN TO MEN & OF
UNTOUCHABLES TO THE HIGHER CASTES.”
• A BRILLIANT ECONOMIST IN THE LIBERAL TRADITION.
• MENTOR TO MAHATMA GANDHI IN HIS SOUTH AFRICAN
YEARS.
• GANDHI’S REFERENCE TO HIM: “…PURE AS CRYSTAL,
GENTLE AS A LAMB, BRAVE AS A LION & CHIVALROUS TO
A FAULT & THE MOST PERFECT MAN IN THE POLITICAL
FIELD.”

GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE: “SERVANT
OF INDIAN SOCIETY”

INDIAN NATIONALIST PIONEERS:
DADABHAI NAOROJI
• COTTON TRADER, MEMBER FOR FINSBURY
CENTRAL (BRITISH LIBERAL PARTY),ECONOMIST,
PROF. MATHEMATICS & NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,
ELPHINSTONE COLLEGE.
• 593 PAGE STATISTICAL STUDY SHOWED TOTAL
COSTS IMPOSED BY BRITAIN ON INDIAN COLONY
WAS 200 MILLION – 300 MILLION POUNDS
STERLING (19OI MONEY = $4.0 - $4.5 TRILLION
TODAY). THESE COSTS WERE TERMED BY HIM AS
“POVERTY” COSTS TO INDIAN PEOPLE.

DADABHAI NAOROJI: “THE GRAND
OLD MAN OF INDIAN NATIONALISM”

LOKAMANYA (REVERED BY INDIANS)
BAL TILAK: CULTURAL
REVOLUTIONARY LEADER

THE FIRST INDIAN NATIONAL
CONGRESS (DECEMBER 1885)
• INDIA’s MILITARY EXPENDITURE WAS 40% - 50%
OF GOVERNMENT REVENUE, RAISED BY TAXES
ON INDIANS. REASON WAS INDIA A MILITARY
H.Q. FOR SMALL WARS IN AFRICA, & SUB-
CONTINENT.
• RAJ PURSUED “DIVIDE & RULE” STRATEGY:
MUSLIMS, PRINCES & LANDOWNERS vs.
HINDUS ETC.
• SIR SYED AHMED KHAN SET UP ALL-INDIA
MUSLIM LEAGUE TO ADVOCATE MUSLIM
INTERESTS (1886)

SIR SYED KHAN.KCSI:ISLAMIST,
EDUCATOR,REFORMER,PHILOSOPHER

THE BEST OF TIMES & THE WORST OF
TIMES (1885 -1905)
• “ DESPITE THE CRESCENDO OF SPEECHES & THE
MOUNTING MASS OF RESOLUTIONS PASSED ANNUALLY BY
CONGRESS, THE BUREAUCRATIC MACHINE BY WHICH THE
CROWN GOVERNED INDIA SECURED ITS STEEL GRIP EVER
MORE SOLIDLY OVER THE WORLD’S LARGEST COLONIAL
DOMAIN FROM 1885 THROUGH 1905.” (STANLEY
WOLPERT)
• AT THE 1887 GOLDEN JUBILEE OF QUEEN VICCTORIA 43
‘FOREIGN ROYALS’ WERE INVITED INCL. 6 MAHARAJAS.
THEIR TOTAL NET WORTH WOULD HAVE EXCEEDED THE
TOTAL NET WORTH OF THE OTHER 37 EUROPEAN ROYALS
• QUEEN VICTORIA ALSO TOOK UNTO HERSELF AN INDIAN
MANSERVANT, ABDUL KARIM, WHO SERVED HER UNTIL
HER DEATH IN 1901.

BRITISH INDIA 1909 (TWO SHADES OF
PINK) PRINCELY STATES IN YELLOW

HOW BRITISH INDIA WAS MANAGED
UNTIL 1914 – 1918 WAR
• BRITONS WERE ATTRACTED TO SERVICE IN INDIA IN THE LATE VICTORIAN & EDWARDIAN YEARS.
• IMPERIAL CIVIL SERVICE - ABOUT 1000 – RULED BRITISH INDIA. RECRUITED FROM TOP PRIVATE
SCHOOLS, OXFORD, CAMBRIDGE, LONDON OR TRINITY, DUBLIN. 95% WHITE BRITONS. THEN
RIGOROUS ENTRANCE EXAM.
• CAREER STREAM BEGAN WITH DISTRICT OFFICER IN 250 DISTRICTS, 4000 SQUARE MILES EACH,
WITH 1 MILLION INDIANS. IN CHARGE OF: POLICE, MAGISTRACY, REVENUE COLLECTION,
MEDICAL, PUBLIC WORKS, & FORESTRY. LARGE INDIAN STAFF SUPERVISED BY “HEAD
VERNACULAR CLERK”.
• NEXT CAREER RUNG WAS GOVERNMENT SECRETARIAT.
• HERE “BUREAUCRATESE” ENGLISH WAS INVENTED: “MORE MINUTES FOLLOWED, IN DIFFERENT
COLOURED INKS, AS THE FILE IS PASSED TO OTHER DEPARTMENTS INTERESTED IN DRAINAGE
SYSTEMS, & IT DULY RECEIVES JUDGEMENT FROM MEN WHO HAVE SAT LONG AT THEIR DESKS
POLISHING THE ART OF THE PUT-DOWN.” (DAVID GILMOUR. )
• BY ABOUT 1877 THE CONTINGENTS OF BARRISTERS, SOLICITORS, ADVOCATES, ATTORNEYS,
PROCTORS, ARTICLED CLERKS CAME FROM BRITAIN TO ADMINISTER THE LAW – SUPERVISED BY
JUDGES – BEGAN TO INCLUDE INDIANS EDUCATED & TRAIN ED IN BRITAIN - & BEGAN TO SHAPE
THE CORNERSTONE OF THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE LARGEST DEMOCRACY IN THE WORLD.
• 1892 INDIAN COUNCILS ACT PROVIDED FOR A MODEST INCREASE IN INDIAN REPRESENTATION
ON CENTRAL & PROVINCIAL LEGISLATIVE COUNCILS.
•

NATIONAL INCOME PER HEAD FALLS
8% FROM 1885 TO 1904 IN INDIA.
1. RAIN GIVING MONSOONS IN GRAIN AREAS FAILED 1896-97 & 1899-
1900, WITH NO HOUSEHOLD STORAGE. FAMINE COVERED 800,000 SQ.
KMS. NORTH INDIA (70 MILLION PEOPLE). 15 MILLION DIED.
2. 1896. BUBONIC PLAGUE IN BOMBAY AS PART OF 3RD PANDEMIC
(PLAGUE RATS FROM CHINA). PLAGUE WAVES CONTINUED 30 YEARS,
KILLING 12.5 MILLION PEOPLE.
3. 50% GOVT. REVENUE SPENT IN FIGHTING SMALL WARS IN ASIA.
4. KITCHENER TRANSFERRED 500 OF BEST INDIAN ARMY OFFICERS TO
BRITAIN TO BUILD HIS “KITCHENER’S ARMY” FOR WORLD WAR 1.
WHAT WAS LEFT DESCRIBED BY DAVID GILMOUR: “ ALTHOUGH THE
INDIAN ARMY PRODUCED SOME OF BRITAIN’S BEST GENERALS, ITS
OFFICERS WERE BOUND TO BE RATHER PAROCHIAL, LIVING IN
CANTONMENTS WITH LITTLE MILITARY EXCITEMENT & NOT MUCH
INCENTIVE TO KEEP ABREAST OF THE LATEST TECHNIQUES OF
WARFARE.” (ONE CONSEQUENCE OF THIS WAS THE MILITARY DISASTER
OF THE MESOPOTAMIAN CAMPAIGN IN WORLD WAR 1.)

IMPERIAL HUBRIS, REVOLT,
REPRESSION & REFORM (1905-1912)
• WITH THE STROKE OF AN IMPERIAL PEN VICEROY CURZON SPLIT 85 MILL.
BENGALIS INTO 2 STATES: EAST BENGAL/ASSAM & WEST BENGAL (HINDUS).
• BENGALIS TOOK TO STREETS IN MASS RALLIES, SANG MILITANT SONGS,
BOYCOTTED BRITISH GOODS (EVENTUALLY REDUCED BRITISH IMPORTS OF
COTTON CLOTH BY 25% & ENCOURAGED LOCAL PRODUCTION), PETITIONS SENT,
VICEROY CURZON RESIGNED BUT REPLACED BY INCOMPETENT VICEROY MINTO.
BUT FOR FIRST TIME INDIAN NATIONALISTS DEMONSTRATED MILITANCY WITHIN
THE LAW.
• START OF SWADESHI MOVEMENT: NATIONAL SELF-SUFFICIENCY. 1907 TATA IRON
& STEEL ESTABLISHED WEST BENGAL.
• INDIAN GOVT. TOOK HARD LINE FOCUSSING ON UNIVERSITY CALCUTTA
STUDENTS: HARRASSED, PERSECUTED & OPPRESSED WHILE LOWER LEVELS WERE
“FLOGGED, FINED OR EXPELLED”.
• NEW GROUP ESTABLISHED IN INDIAN CONGRESS: “NEW PARTY” . LED BY BIPIN
PAL, ARABINDA GHOSH & THE REVERED BAL TILAK. THIS ACTIVATED MUSLIM
MAJORITY IN EAST BENGAL. DELEGATION TO VICEROY MINTO MUCH
ENCOURAGED, LEADING TO ESTABLISHMENT OF “ALL-INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE”
.MONEY POURED IN FROM WORLD MUSLIMS & PROFESSIONAL ELITE JOINED ITS
RANKS

VICEROY CURZON’s PARTITION OF
BENGAL. 1905.

PISTOLS & THROWING BOMBS USED
BY ASSASSINS IN 1909 BENGAL

BRITAIN: INDIA NEEDED SHOWS OF
GRANDEUR: LUTYENS DESIGNS NEW
DELHI (1): THE “VICEROY’S HOUSE”

GRANDEUR (2): DELHI DURBAR 1911.
KING GEORGE V & MARY PRESIDING

INDIA’s MARCH TO INDEPENDENCE :
THE INTER-WAR YEARS
• INDIA’S SACRIFICE IN WAR DEAD & INJURED & NEW INDUSTRIES TO HELP
BRITAIN’S WAR EFFORT GAVE INDIANS NEW CONFIDENCE & A SURGE OF LOYALTY
TOWARDS BRITAIN – FOSTERED BY A LIBERAL VICEROY LORD HARDINGE.
• “MORE THAN A MILLION INDIANS, NON-COMBATITANTS & SOLDIERS, WERE
SHIPPED OVERSEAS DURING THE WAR. MOST OF THEM RETURNED HOME WITH
STRANGE, DREADFUL & WONDERFUL TALES OF THE WORLD OF EUROPE &
AFRICA, THEIR MINDS OPENED, THEIR VISIONS & ASPIRATIONS FOR THEIR
CHILDREN – IF NOT FOR THEMSELVES - IRREVERSIBLY ALTERED.” (WOLPERT)
• A “NEW GUARD” BEGAN TO EMERGE IN CONGRESS WHOSE INTELLECTUAL
LEADER WAS MOHANDAS GANDHI: “ (HE) DOMINATED CONGRESS SINCE 1920
WHEN AT ITS CALCUTTA SESSION ‘ IT ADOPTED THE POLICY OF NON-VIOLENT
NON-COOPERATION INAUGURATED BY HIM….IT DIFFERED FROM OTHER
MOVEMENTS AS IT ON PRINCIPLE HAD TO REMAIN UTTERLY NON-VIOLENT
WHATEVER THE PROVOCATION & CIRCUMSTANCES MIGHT BE. IT WAS A
MEASURE OF DISCIPLINE & SELF SACRIFICE’. IF IN ITS IMPLEMENTATION ANY
VIOLENCE OCCURRED IT HAD TO BE SUSPENDED & ITS PROMOTERS & SINCERE
FOLLOWERS HAD TO REPENT & DO PENANCE TO PURIFY THEMSELVES THROUGH
ANGUISH & FASTING.” (WOLPERT)

GEN. DYER’s MASSACRE OF 1000
DEAD/1500 WOUNDED. APRIL 1919.

MARTYR’s WELL AT JALLIANWALLAH:
CONTAINED 120 BODIES (JUMPING
IN) DURING MASSACRE

. BRITISH CONSERVATIVES RAISED
$2.5 MILLION (2020 $) FOR
GEN.DYER’s RETIREMENT
1. “ MILLIONS OF LESS FAMOUS INDIANS (THAN RABINDRANATH TAGORE, WHO
RESIGNED HIS KNIGHTHOOD) TURNED AT THIS TIME FROM LOYAL SUPPORTERS
OF THE BRITISH RAJ TO NATIONALISTS WHO WERE NO LONGER CONTENT TO
FOLLOW ORDERS OR TRUST IN THE ‘FAIR PLAY’ OF ITS OFFICIALS …BY 1919
INDIA’S ERA OF LATE VICTORIAN LIBERAL COOPERATION & EDWARDIAN
POLITESSE WAS FOREVER ENDED. “ (WOLPERT)
2. KILLING DEMOSTRATORS & MASS ARRESTS NOW BECAME MORE FREQUENT.
3. WHILST GANDHI ROUSED MILLIONS OF INDIANS INTO A NATIONAL
CONCIOUSNESS BASED ON NON-VIOLENT, NON-COOPERATING DISSENT, THERE
WAS A GROWING ELEMENT IN CONGRESS & THE MUSLIM LEAGUE WHO
BELIEVED THAT VIOLENCE & ASSASSINATIONS WERE THE ROADS TO TAKE FOR
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE.
4. INDIA STRUGGLED THROUGH THE GREAT DEPRESSION. BY 1931 ITS
POPULATION HAD GROWN IN THE GOOD YEARS & WAS NOW 338 MILLION ,
MOSTLY IN RURAL AREAS. BUT BY 1932 FOOD GRAIN PRICES HAD DROPPED BY
56%. DEBT BURDENED FARMERS COULD NOT SERVICE DEBT & EITHER HAD TO
ABANDON THEIR DEBT-ENCUMBERED LAND & BECOME LANDLESS LABOURERS
FOR OTHER FARMERS OR MOVE TO THE CITIES WHERE THERE WAS NO WORK &
NO FOOD. LURID PRESS COVERAGE OF THE INDIAN SITUATION IN BRITAIN LED
TO A FLIGHT OF CAPITAL BACK TO BRITAIN & HIT INFRASTRUCTURE SPENDING.

LEADERSHIP OF INDIAN
INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT
1. JAWARHAL NEHRU.
SON OF A WEALTHY LAWYER.GIFTED LAWYER. TRINITY, CAMBRIDGE. INNER
TEMPLE:BARRISTER.CONGRESS MEMBER EARLY 20s.RADICAL ADVOCATE HOME
RULE.1928 NEHRU REPORT (“DRAFT CONSTITUTION”). CHARISMA &
CHARM.FIRST PRIME MINISTER INDIA.
2. MOHAMMAD ALI JINNAH
WEALTHY FAMILY. FINANCED LEGAL STUDIES, LINCOLN’S INN, LONDON. BARRISTER. “
THE BEST TALKER OF THE PACK”. HEIR APPARENT TO THE MODERATES GROUP
IN CONGRESS UNTIL 1937.REALISED GANDHI’s LEADERSHIP (HINDU BASED)
LEADING INDIA’s FUTURE INTO DISADVANTAGE FOR MUSLIMS. CONGRESS
REJECTED HIS IDEAS FOR JOINT MUSLIM-HINDU LEADERSHIP IN MUSLIM
MAJORITY STATES. “THIS BECAME THE SEED TIME FOR FOR THE EMERGENCE OF
PAKISTAN.” (WITH JINNAH AS THE LEADER)
3. MAHATMA GANDHI
(SEE THE BRILLIANT ATTENBOROUGH MOVIE – AVAILABLE EVRYWHERE - FOR A
WELL-ROUNDED PICTURE OF GANDHI)

LEADERSHIP OF INDIAN
INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT CONTD.
4. SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE
WEALTHY BENGALI HIGH CASTE KAYASTHA FAMILY. BACHELOR OF
ARTS, CALCUTTA UNI.
1921: SELECTED FOR INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE BUT RESIGNED DUE TO
ANTIPATHY TO THE BRITISH.
1927: APPOINTED GENERAL SECRETARY OF CONGRESS, WORKING
CLOSELY WITH NEHRU.
1929: APPOINTED HIMSELF GENERAL OFFICER COMMANDING,
CONGRESS VOLUNTEER CORPS. A PARAMILITARY ARM OF
CONGRESS. DRESSED IN TAILORED UNIFORMS & HAD A
REVOLUTIONARY MISSION AGAINST BRITISH.
1930: MURDERED POLICEMEN & BENGAL INSPECTOR GENERAL OF
PRISONS.

SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE (1)
• 1933 – 1937: TRAVELLED EUROPE & SOVIET UNION. CLOSELY STUDIED
FASCISM.
• 1938: ELECTED PRESIDENT OF CONGRESS WITH PLATFORM OF VIOLENT
CONFRONTATION WITH BRITISH. DEEP SPLIT IN CONGRESS WITH
GANDHI & NEHRU ON ONE SIDE & BOSE & FOLLOWERS ON OTHER.
• JUNE 1939: BOSE FORMED “ALL INDIA FORWARD BLOC” STRONGLY
SUPPORTED IN BENGAL. CAMPAIGNED AGAINST INDIA’S ENTRY INTO
WAR WITH GERMANY/ITALY
• APRIL 1941: ARRIVED IN BERLIN. NAZI PARTY GAVE HIM AIRTIME TO
BROADCAST PROPAGANDA & ADVERTISE NAZI PLAN TO INVADE INDIA.
• 1941: TOOK COMMAND OF “FREE INDIA LEGION” COMPRISING 3000
INDIAN PRISONERS OF WAR FROM NORTH AFRICA.
• THIS LEGION ATTACHED TO WAFFEN SS COMMAND (NON-COMBATANT
FRONTLINE , PROBABLY BARBAROSSA & SOVIET PRISONERS OF WAR).
• BOSE DESERTED THE UNIT IN 1943 WHEN GERMANS IN RETREAT IN
RUSSIA. TOOK A U-BOAT TO JAPAN TO MEET TOJO, DECEMBER, 1943

WAFFEN SS FEEDING SOVIET
PRISONERS. 1942.( 3RD GUARD FROM
LEFT AVOIDING CAMERA. INDIAN?)

• 15 FEB. 1942. BRITISH GENERAL PERCIVAL
SURRENDERED 100,000, BRITISH, INDIAN &
AUSTRALIAN TROOPS AT SINGAPORE.
• 40,000 INDIAN TROOPS WERE ENCOURAGED TO
JOIN INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY (INA)
SUPERVISED BY IMPERIAL JAPANESE ARMY (IJA)
INTELLIGENCE.COMMANDED BY CAPTAIN
MOHAN SINGH.
• EVIDENCE THAT ENGLISH SPEAKING INA
ASSIGNED AS CAMP GUARDS AT CHANGI POW
CAMP

BRITISH OFFICER KNEELING FOR
PUNISHMENT BY INA PRISON GUARD,
CHANGI. (IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM)

• JULY 1943. BOSE MADE COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF 2ND I.N.A.:
50,000 (INCL.CIVILIANS FROM MALAYA & BURMA). DECLARED
WAR ON BRITAIN & USA.
• OFFICE OF STRATEGIC SERVICES REPORT. (8/6/1945). I.N.A.USED
BY JAPANESE IN THEIR OPERATIONS U-GO & HA-GO TO INVADE
INDIA. JAPANESE WERE DECIMATED. O.S.S. SAID MAIN FUNCTION:
“SHOUTING ORDERS IN URDU & ENGLISH TO ENCOURAGE
DESERTERS & TO TAKE FULL CHARGE OF ALL BRITISH-INDIAN
PRISONERS…” (CONTINUING THEIR PRISON MANAGEMENT TASK)
• WOLPERT DESCRIBES THE ADULATION GIVEN BY INDIANS TO INA
AFTER THE WAR, AS HEROES FIGHTING AGAINST BRITISH.
• BRITISH – INDIAN ARMY IN WORLD WAR II LOST OVER 87,000
KILLED & 34,354 WOUNDED. THEY WON 4000 MILITARY
DECORATIONS FOR BRAVERY, INCLUDING 18 VICTORIA CROSSES &
GEORGE CROSSES.

MEMBER CONTRIBUTIONS 1. POEM
SELECTED BY GLENNIS HENNING
ALL YOU WHO SLEEP TONIGHT
ALL YOU WHO SLEEP TONIGHT
FAR FROM THE ONES YOU LOVE
NO HAND TO LEFT OR RIGHT,
AND EMPTINESS ABOVE –
KNOW THAT YOU AREN’T ALONE.
THE WHOLE WORLD SHARES YOUR TEARS,
SOME FOR TWO NIGHTS OR ONE,
AND SOME FOR ALL THEIR YEARS.
(VIKRAM SETH. DEDICATED TO THE FIGHTING MEN OF INDIA)

MEMBER CONTRIBUTIONS 2:
QUESTIONS BY NORMAN CHUN
Q. “LAST TIME I ASKED YOU ABOUT RELIGIONS IN
INDIA. WHAT ARE THE PERCENTAGES OF HINDUS,
BUDDHISTS, MUSLIMS, & CHRISTIANS IN INDIA?”
A. 2011 CENSUS OF INDIA SHOWS POPULATION, BY
RELIGION:
HINDU(79.8%);ISLAM(14.2%);CHRISTIAN(2.3%);
SIKH(1.7%);BUDDHIST(0.7%)JAIN(0.4%);OTHER
(0.9%). CHRISTIANITY GOES BACK TO THE APOSTLE
SAINT THOMAS, WHO IS SAID TO HAVE ARRIVED IN
SOUTH INDIA (KERALA COAST) IN 52 A.D. (ON TRADE
ROUTES TO MIDDLE EAST). HE ESTABLISHED 7
CHURCHES IN KERALA & WAS MARTYRED IN 72 A.D.
ON THE COROMANDEL COAST ( EAST)

MEMBER CONTRIBUTIONS 3:
INSIGHTS ON BURMA FROM ELEANOR
BOUSTEAD
ELEANOR DID AN EXTENSIVE TOUR OF BURMA
WITH THE W.E.A. SYDNEY IN 2010. HAS GREAT
INSIGHTS & TOUR NOTES.
SHE ALSO RECOMMENDS A BOOK WHICH I THINK
IS A MUST READ FOR THOSE INTERESTED IN THE
STRATEGIC POSITION OF INDIA RELATIVE TO
CHINA (SUBJECT OF LECTURE 9). THE BOOK:
“WHERE CHINA MEETS INDIA: BURMA & THE NEW
CROSSROADS OF ASIA”. THANT MYINT-U. FABER
& FABER. 2011.
IF YOU WISH TO CONTACT ELEANOR PLEASE
ADVISE ME & I WILL SET IT UP FOR YOU.

LECTURE 8. REPUBLIC OF INDIA:
BUILDING THE NATION

THE PARTITION
• “ THE COUNTLESS PRACTICAL CONSEQUENCES OF PARTITION, WHICH HAD
HITHERTO BEEN NEGLECTED OR PURPOSELY IGNORED BY THOSE WHO REFUSED
TO BELIEVE THE POSSIBILITY OF PARTITION, NOW FLOODED THE DESKS OF EVERY
OFFICIAL IN DELHI, LAHORE & CALCUTTA, WHOSE JOBS WERE TO DIVIDE THE
ASSETS & LIABILITIES OF BRITISH INDIA, AS WELL AS ITS TERRITORY, INTO
BUNDLES OF 82.5% FOR INDIA & 17.5% FOR PAKISTAN….
• “ THE TERROR, THE ANGUISH OF MILLIONS OF HINDUS, MUSLIMS & SIKHS WHO
FEARED THAT THEY WOULD AWAKEN NEXT MORNING TO FIND THEMSELVES
TRAPPED IN A NATION FUNDAMENTALLY HOSTILE TO THEIR FAITH & WERE THUS
DRIVEN TO TAKE WHAT PITIFUL POSSESSIONS THEY COULD CARRY & ABANDON
THEIR FIELDS & HOMES, CAN BARELY BE IMAGINED. AN ESTIMATED 10 MILLION
PEOPLE CHANGED LANDS THAT SUMMER OF 1947 & APPROXIMATELY 1 MILLION
OF THEM NEVER REACHED THEIR PROMISED NATION ALIVE…
• “…TRAINLOADS OF SIKH REFUGEES MOVING EAST WERE SLAUGHTERED BY
MUSLIMS IN PAKISTAN & MUSLIMS HEADED WEST WERE BUTCHERED BY SIKHS &
HINDUS IN INDIA. THE STREAM BECAME A FLOOD , THE FLOOD BECAME A
HOLOCAUST OF PAIN, LOOTING, RAPE & MURDER…
• “…WINSTON CHURCHILL CALLED MOUNTBATTEN’S HASTE IN WITHDRAWING ALL
BRITISH PROTECTION FROM SOUTH ASIA, A ‘SHAMEFUL FLIGHT’ ..(WOLPERT)

VICEROY MOUNTBATTEN’s DILEMMA
MOUNTBATTEN & HIS ENTOURAGE ARRIVED IN DELHI, 22 MARCH 1947. HE WENT
STRAIGHT INTO MEETINGS WITH NEHRU & LIAQUAT ALI KHAN (GENERAL
SECRETARY OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE). PRIOR TO THE MEETINGS HE HAD BEEN
BRIEFED CONFIDENTIALLY BY LORD WAVELL, THE PREVIOUS VICEROY. 2 DAYS
LATER MOUNTABATTEN WROTE TO PRIME MINISTER ATTLEE:
“ THE SCENE HERE IS ONE OF UNRELIEVED GLOOM…AT THIS EARLY STAGE I CAN SEE
LITTLE GROUND ON WHICH TO BUILD ANY AGREED SOLUTION FOR THE FUTURE
OF INDIA. THE CABINET IS FIERCELY DIVIDED ON COMMUNAL LINES : EACH PARTY
HAS ITS OWN SOLUTION & DOES NOT AT PRESENT SHOW ANY SIGN OF BEING
PREPARED TO CONSIDER ANOTHER.
IN ADDITION THE WHOLE COUNTRY IS IN AN UNSETTLED STATE…THE ONLY
CONCLUSION THAT I HAVE BEEN ABLE TO COME TO IS THAT UNLESS I ACT
QUICKLY I MAY WELL FIND THE REAL BEGINNINGS OF A CIVIL WAR ON MY
HANDS “ (THE PROVINCE GOVERNORS HAD ALREADY TOLD HIM THIS)
MOUNTBATTEN WAS ESSENTIALLY A LINEARLY THINKING NAVAL COMMANDER, OF
BRAVERY & SUCCESS. THIS LINEARITY OF THOUGHT SAW THE ONLY SOLUTION
WAS TO BE A QUICK EXECUTIVE DECISION, FOLLOWED BY A FAST EXIT FROM
WHAT HE SAW AS AN INSOLUBLE PROBLEM FOR BRITAIN – AND LEAVE IT TO THE
MINIONS TO RESOLVE THE PROBLEMS ON THEIR PATCH OF TERRITORY .

THE MOUNTBATTEN PLAN FOR
PARTITION, APRIL 1947 & AFTER
• NEHRU PUBLICLY ANNOUNCED HIS ACCEPTANCE OF THE PAKISTAN
NATION TO BE, COMPRISING TWO PARTS: EAST & WEST.
• MOUNTBATTEN PLANNED TO DISPLAY HIS PLAN TO ALL IN MID-
MAY.
• HIS PLAN WAS UNACCEPTABLE TO CONGRESS ESP. FREE CHOICE
TO 565 PRINCELY STATES TO JOIN NEW NATIONS.
• IN SHIMLA, MID-MAY SECRET MEETING: MOUNTBATTEN, NEHRU,
V.P. MENON, & PUNJAB GOV. EVAN JENKINS.
• IN 3 HOURS NEHRU & MENON DREW UP NEW PLAN, WITH
MOUNTBATTEN’S CONSENT. TELEPHONE CALLS TO CONGRESS
POTENTATES, ACCEPTANCE REACHED (MUSLIM LEAGUE, PRINCES
NOR ANYONE ELSE, CONSULTED).
• REVISED MOUNTBATTEN PLAN (“3 JUNE PLAN”) PUT TO SENIOR
CONGRESS, MUSLIM LEAGUE & SIKHS & AGREED TO BY THEM.
(SOURCE: Alex von Tunzelmann. “ Indian Summer”)

INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT 1947
(ROYAL ASSENT 18 JULY 1947)
1. DIVISION OF BRITISH INDIA INTO 2 DOMINIONS: INDIA &
PAKISTAN 15 AUG. 1947.
2. PARTITION OF PROVINCES: BENGAL & PUNJAB BETWEEN
INDIA/PAKISTAN.
3. ESTABLISH GOVERNOR-GENERAL IN INDIA & PAKISTAN AS
CROWN REPRESENTATIVES.
4. CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLIES IN EACH COUNTRY TO HAVE
COMPLETE LEGISLATION.
5. BRITAIN TO RELINQUISH ALL POWERS OVER PRINCELY STATES &
FOR THEM TO DEAL INDEPENDENTLY WITH PAKISTAN & INDIA.
6. ABOLISH “EMPEROR OF INDIA”
7. ALL JOINT PROPERTY OF INDIA/PAKISTAN TO BE DIVIDED
BETWEEN THEM, PARTICULARLY THE ARMED FORCES.

673 TRAINS CARRIED 2.8 MILLION
REFUGEES ACROSS PUNJAB’S
BORDER. (4000 PER TRAIN)

TEMPORARY BORDER CAMP TAKING
IN MASSACRE SURVIVORS (STUDY
THE FACE)

AFTERMATH OF MASSIVE CONFLICT
IN A BORDER CITY. 1947

KASHMIR’S ACCESSION TO INDIA 26
OCTOBER 1947. PAKISTAN INVADES &
INDIA SENDS PARATROOPERS

P.M. NEHRU: “MOST FASCINATING,
GENTLE, SENSUAL MAN I EVER MET”
(LEE RADZIWILL & JACKIE KENNEDY)

P.M. NEHRU: “THE BASE FOR INDIAN
DEVELOPMENT”
“ (THERE IS HOPE FOR SUCCESS OF DEMOCRACY IN
INDIA, BECAUSE…) I HAVE ALWAYS HAD GREAT FAITH ,
TREMENDOUS CONFIDENCE, IN THE INDIAN PEOPLE
AS A WHOLE, IN ….MASSES….THEY HAVE A CERTAIN
QUALITY & CHARACTER, A BASIC CULTURAL
TRADITION WHICH MAKES THEM FUNCTION. THEY
MAY BE CONSERVATIVE, THEY MAY BE BACKWARD IN
INDUSTRIAL TECHNIQUES. THEY CAN MEND OR
LEARN ALL THAT. BUT SOMETHING MORE IMPORTANT
& REMARKABLE THEY POSSESS & THAT IS A CERTAIN
QUALITY OF CHARACTER WHICH, I THINK, IS OF GREAT
VALUE TO THEM & TO US.”

INDIA’s IRRIGATION CANAL SYSTEM:
“GREEN REVOLUTION” FOUNDATION

INDIA-CHINA WAR 1962. UNLIKE
INDIA, CHINA BUILT INVASION ROADS

PANDITJI AMAR RAHE (PANDITJI HAS
BECOME IMMORTAL) MAY 1964

P.M. LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI.
FRAIL, GENTLE, MAN OF STEEL

GEN. AYUB KHAN vs. SHASTRI ’65.
KHAN LOSES ALL THOSE NEW U.S.
TANKS & SABRE JET FIGHTERS

DEATH OF SHASTRI AT SIGNING OF
TASHKENT CEASEFIRE. ‘66. WAS
NOVICHOK USED?

P.M. INDIRA GANDHI. 16 JANUARY
1966

“THE BOOTS WERE MADE FOR
WALKING”
“ BUT THE ‘SYNDICATE’ (CONGRESS PARTY
POWERBROKERS) & THE OLD GUARD ASSUMED
INDIRA WOULD BE PLIABLE & EASY TO MANIPULATE.
SHE HAD NO VASSALS BEHIND HER, WAS NOT TIED
DOWN BY CASTE, REGION, CLASS, RELIGION,
LANGUAGE OR FACTION, AT LEAST ACCORDING TO
FRANK (HER BIOGRAPHER). THIS IS OFTEN GIVEN AS
THE REASON TO PUSH WOMEN TO THE TOP IN MANY
CASES: THEY ARE A SYMBOL…(THIS STRATEGY OF THE
SO-CALLED SYNDICATE ETC.) FAILED SPECTACULARLY
WITH INDIRA GANDHI.” (“Dynasties& Female Political
Leaders in Asia: Gender Power & Pedigree” Derichs &
Thompson)

1967: CONGRESS COLECTIVE RULE
ENDS & “INDIRA RAJ” BEGINS
• HER VISION OF “SOCIALIST PATTERN OF SOCIETY”
• BY-PASSES RIGHT FACTION (DEP. LEADER/FINANCE -
DESAI).
• NATIONALISED 14 INDIAN BANKS, INCL. CENTRAL
BANK.
• CREATED CONGRESS REQUISITION PARTY (CONGRESS
R) TO COUNTER RIGHT WING: “CONGRESS
ORGANISATION PARTY (CONGRESS O)
• GANDHI LUCKY WITH SHASTRI INITIATIVE “GREEN
REVOLUTION” LIFTS AGRICULTURE 31% FROM 1969 –
1972.

GREEN REVOLUTION: PUNJAB
BECOMES INDIA’S WHEAT BASKET

1971 LOK SABHA ELECTION: 200 +
MILLION VOTERS GAVE GANDHI 70%
MAJORITY IN LOK SABHA

1971: NEW PAKISTAN DICTATOR,
YAHYA KHAN ENDS EAST PAKISTAN
INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT

INDO-PAKISTAN WAR 1971: PAKISTAN
ARMY SURRENDERS EAST PAKISTAN

INDO-PAKISTAN WAR 1971: P.M.
GANDHI CONGRATULATES ARMY
MEDAL WINNERS

AFTER OVERWHELMING WIN IN 1972
ELECTION GANDHI LAUNCHES HER
NEW ECONOMIC PROGRAM
1. STRINGENT LAWS TO SUPPORT LAND REFORMS TO
FREE UP LAND HELD BY TRADITIONAL OWNERS .
2. TOUGH TAX REGIME ON LARGE CORPORATIONS &
URBAN WEALTHY.
3. MARUTI – THE “PEOPLES CAR” PRODUCTION.
YOUNGEST SON, SANJAY, TO LEAD NEW INDIAN CAR
PRODUCTION. SMACKS OF NEPOTISM.
4. BUT, UNDERLYING FAULT LINES IN INDIA’S COMPLEX
SOCIAL FABRIC: “ NOR WOULD INDIA’S PROBLEMS
OF COMMUNAL JEALOUSY, DISTRUST, IGNORANCE,
& HATRED …DIAPPEAR OVERNIGHT” (WOLPERT)

OPERATION “SMILING BUDDHA”
UNDERGROUND NUCLEAR TEST,
RAJASTAN DESERT IN MAY 1974

1975: ECONOMIC & SOCIAL MALAISE
CAUSES GREAT UNREST
“ WITH LESS THAN 2000 INDIAN CITIZENS ADMITTING TO
MORE THAN $1300 A YEAR TAXABLE INCOME & MORE
THAN 400 MILLION LIVING ON THE KNIFE EDGE OF
STARVATION (SPENDING LESS THAN 20 CENTS PER DAY),
THERE WAS CONSIDERABLE REASON TO BE
DISCONTENTED. AND WITH AT LEAST ONE-THIRD OF THE
MORE THAN 16 MILLION ANNUAL COLLEGE GRADUATES
OF INDIA UNABLE TO FIND JOBS OF ANY SORT, IT WAS
HARDLY SURPRISING TO FIND EDUCATED YOUTH IN THE
VANGUARD OF OPPOSITION. ‘ SOME MEMBERS OF THE
OPPOSITION HAVE RIGHTLY BLAMED US SAYING WHY DID
WE NOT TAKE SOME ACTION EARLIER’ , INDIRA
CONFESSED. ‘ I DO ADMIT THAT HAD I TAKEN ACTION
EARLIER IT WOULD HAVE BEEN LESS DRAMATIC.” (WOLPT)

P.M. GANDHI’s 20-POINT REFORM
PROGRAM
1. REDUCE SCOURGE OF INFLATION.
2. TO 7. MORE LAND REFORMS
8. TO 10. DEVELOP HOUSEHOLD MANUFACTURING ( EG:
HAND LOOMING CLOTH)
11. “SOCIALISATION OF URBAN LAND”
12. – 13. STAMPING OUT TAX EVASION
14. STAMPING OUT FRAUD IN LICENSING OF MANUFACTURE
& OTHER ACTIVITIES.
15. – 20. SKILLING UP WORKERS FOR SECONDARY INDUSTRY
1977: MEASURES WHICH BEGAN TO BITE BAD GUYS, WAS
CANCELLED

1977 ELECTION VOTED GANDHI OUT
OF OFFICE. INDIA NOW RUN BY
“JANATA PARTY”• A PARTY COBBLED TOGETHER BY A MESS OF FACTIONS OPPOSING
GANDHI’s CONGRESS PARTY.
• ACHIEVED VERY LITTLE & INDIAN PRESIDENT CALLED AN ELECTION
1980. GAVE POWER BACK TO INDIRA GANDHI.
• 1980: SANJAY, BEING GROOMED TO TAKE OVER FROM INDIRA,
KILLED IN PLANE CRASH.
• BROTHER RAJIV TAKES OVER AS HEIR APPARENT.
• INDIA SET FOR 5.7% PER YEAR GROWTH IN GROSS DOMESTIC
PRODUCT, OUT TO 1985, AS REFORMS BEGIN TO BITE.
SOVIET INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN OFFER INDIA & PAKISTAN A
CHANCE TO COME TOGETHER TO OPPOSE A COMMON ENEMY
THREAT. BUT PAKISTAN TURNS TO SAUDI ARABIA & BECOMES
HOST TO ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM.

1984: SIKH FUNDAMENTALISTS
OCCUPY AKAL TAKHT, GOLDEN
TEMPLE, WANTING A SIKH NATION

TREATED AS INSURRECTION. GANDHI
ORDERS “OPERATION BLUE STAR”

31 OCT. 1984 2 SIKH BODYGUARDS
FIRE 30 ROUNDS INTO P.M. GANDHI

FUNERAL BROADCAST ORATION BY
MELVILLE de MELLOW (EXCERPTS)
“ LIKE HER FATHER, SHE MADE INDIA STAND UP &
LOOK THE WORLD IN THE FACE.
THAT IS PROBABLY HER GREATEST EPITAPH…
AND SO HER DEATH BECAME AN EXPRESSION OF
EVERYTHING SHE WAS IN LIFE –
A BRAVE & COURAGEOUS SPIRIT
AND COURAGE WAS THE HALLMARK OF HER LIFE.
HER STRENGTH STEMMED FROM PATIENCE –
FROM AN INHERITED WISDOM –
FROM PROFOUND EXPERIENCE.”

“WE ARE FACE TO FACE WITH THE
LAST JOURNEY – THE FLAMES – & THE
FINALITY OF IT ALL”

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER
STUDY
• KATHERINE FRANK: “INDIRA: THE LIFE OF
INDIRA NEHRU GANDHI.” WORLD OF BOOKS .
$22.99. A MUST FOR YOUR BOOKSHELF.
• DOCUMENTARY MOVIE: “INDIRA GANDHI:
THE DEATH OF MOTHER INDIA”. 1 HOUR 20
MINS. BBC FILMS.

India: The Inclusive Civilisation

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