SKEMA

1. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
180
13
BAB
BAB
Konsep
PETA
13
Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
Homeostasis and Human Urinary System
Suhu badan
Body temperature
Tekanan separa
karbon dioksida
Partial pressure
carbon dioxide
Arah gula darah
Blood sugar level
Tekanan darah
Blood pressure
Ultraturasan
Ultrafiltration
Penyerapan semula
Reabsoprtion
Rembesan
Secreation
Struktur
Structure
Fungsi
Function
Kepentingan
Importance
Mekanisme Suap
Balik Negatif
Negative Feedback
Mechanism
Uretritis
Ureteritis
Pielonefritis
Pielonefritis
Batu karang
Kidney stones
Maksud
Meaning
Isu Kesihatan
Health Issues
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
Homeostasis and Human Urinary System
Sistem Urinari Manusia
Urinary System in Humans
Proses
Pembentukan Air
Kencing
Formation of Urine
Konsep suap balik
negatif
The concept of
negative feedback
mechanism
Pengosmokawalaturan
Osmoregulation
Ginjal
Kidney
Berkaitan Sistem
Urinasi
Related to the
Urinary System
180
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2. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
181
13
BAB
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
13.1
1. Persekitaran luar badan sentiasa berubah. Oleh itu adalah penting untuk manusia mengekalkan kestabilan
persekitaran dalam untuk kemandirian .
The external environment is continually changing. It is important to keep the internal environment of our body stable
for survival of humans.
2. Pengekalan persekitaran dalam yang stabil atau tetap dikenali sebagai homeostasis .
The maintenance of a stable or relatively constant internal environment is known as homeostasis .
Malar
Relatively constant
Sel-sel badan dibasahi dalam bendalir tisu
Body cells bathed in tissue fluid
Badan manusia
Human body
Parameter persekitaran dalam:
Parameters of internal environment:
1. Suhu badan / Body
temperature
2. Tekanan darah / Blood
pressure
3. Kandungan air darah / Blood
water
content
4. Aras gula darah / Blood
sugar
level
5. Tekanan separa oksigen dan karbon dioksida
Partial
pressure
of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Persekitaran luar
External environment
Berubah berterusan
Continually
changing
Keperluan untuk mengekalkan faktor fizikal dan faktor kimia persekitaran dalam
The necessity to maintain physical and chemical factors in the internal environment
(a) Suhu badan
Body temperature
• Suhu badan yang stabil adalah penting untuk enzim berfungsi dengan cekap.
A
stable
body temperature is essential for
enzymes
to function properly.
• Pada manusia, kulit terlibat dalam mengekalkan suhu badan pada 36.5 – 37°C .
In humans, the
skin
is involved in keeping the body temperature at
36.5 – 37°C
.
35
36
35°C
Menggigil
Severe shivering
36.5-37°C
Suhu badan normal
Normal body
temperature
37.5°C
Demam Fever
41°C
Pengsan, kekeliruan
Fainting, confusion
38 40 42
37 39 41 °C
(b) Kandungan air dalam
darah
Blood water content
• Kandungan air yang stabil dalam sel adalah penting supaya sel-sel dapat menjalankan aktiviti metabolisme
dengan baik.
stable
water content in the cells is important so that cells can carry
metabolic
activities properly.
• Ini dapat mengelakkan kesan osmosis yang boleh merosakkan sel.
This is to avoid
osmotic
effects that could damage the cells.
• Kandungan air dalam darah dikawal oleh ginjal dalam sistem urinari .
The water content in blood is regulated by the
kidneys
of the
urinary
system.
(c) Tekanan separa
oksigen dan karbon
dioksida darah
Partial pressure of oxygen
and of carbon dioxide in
blood
• Kandungan oksigen dalam darah dikekalkan supaya mempunyai oksigen yang mencukupi untuk respirasi
sel.
The
oxygen
content in blood has to be kept stable to provide sufficient oxygen to cells for
respiration
.
• Kandungan karbon dioksida dalam darah yang tetap untuk mengekalkan pH dalam darah
stabil.
The
carbon dioxide
content in blood has to be kept constant to maintain a stable
pH
in blood.
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3. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
182
13
BAB
• Kandungan gas dalam darah dikawalatur melalui pernafasan dan denyutan jantung dalam sistem respirasi
dan peredaran darah.
The
respiratory
system and the
circulatory
system are involved in the regulation of gas content in blood through
breathing
and
heartbeat
.
• pH yang tetap membolehkan aktiviti enzim adalah optimum .
Constant pH levels allows
enzyme
to function at their
optimum
activity.
(d) Aras gula darah
Blood sugar level
• Aras gula darah perlu stabil untuk membekalkan glukosa yang mencukupi bagi respirasi sel.
The sugar level in blood has to be kept stable to provide sufficient
glucose
to cells for
respiration
.
• Aras glukosa darah dikawal oleh pankreas dan hati .
The blood glucose level is regulated by the
pancreas
and the liver .
Mekanisme Homeostasis
Mechanism of Homeostasis
• Homeostasis dilakukan oleh mekanisme suapbalik negatif .
Homeostasis is usually brought about by negative feedback mechanism.
Reseptor
Receptors
Reseptor
Receptors
Pusat kawalan
Control
centre
Efektor
Effectors
Bergerak balas untuk
mengurangkan aras
Response to decrease the level
Pusat kawalan
Control
centre
Efektor
Effectors
Bergerak balas untuk
meningkatkan aras
Response to increase the level
Aras parameter lebih tinggi
daripada normal
Level of parameter higher than
normal
Aras normal parameter
Normal
level of parameter
Aras parameter lebih rendah
daripada normal
Level of parameter lower than
normal
Meningkat
Increases Suapbalik negatif
Negative
feedback
Suapbalik negatif
Negative
feedback
Menurun
Decreases
Pengawalaturan Suhu Badan
The Regulation of Body Temperature
• Mekanisme yang mengimbangkan jumlah haba dalam badan adalah di bawah kawalan pusat pengawalaturan
suhu di hipotalamus .
In our body, the mechanisms that balance the amount of heat gain and heat loss are under the control of the thermoregulatory
centre in the hypothalamus of the brain.
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4. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
183
13
BAB
• Hipothalamus mempunyai termoreseptor untuk mengesan suhu aliran darah (suhu dalam).
The hypothalamus has thermoreceptors that can detect the temperature of the blood passing through it (i.e. internal
temperature).
• Ia juga menerima impuls saraf daripada termoreseptor kulit berkaitan perubahan suhu kulit (suhu luar).
It also receives nerve impulses about changes in skin temperature (i.e. external temperature) from the
thermoreceptors in the skin.
Pusat pengawalaturan suhu
Thermoregulatory centre
Suhu darah ↑
Blood temperature ↑
Suhu darah
↑
Blood temperature
↑
Suhu kulit
↑
Skin temperature
↑
Suhu kulit ↑
Skin temperature ↑
Termoreseptor
di kulit
Thermoreceptors
in skin
Termoreseptor
di kulit
Thermoreceptors
in skin
Termoreseptor di
hipotalamus
Thermoreceptors in
hypothalamus Suhu badan
normal
Normal body
temperature
Suhu badan
normal
Normal body
temperature
Pusat haba
Heat loss
centre
Pusat haba
Heat gain
centre
Dikesan oleh
Detected by
Merangsang
Stimulate
Mekanisme pembetulan
Corrective mechanisms
1. Kehilangan haba ↑
Heat loss ↑
2. Perolehan haba
↑
Heat gain
↑
Mekanisme pembetulan
Corrective mechanisms
1. Kehilangan haba
↑
Heat loss
↑
2. Perolehan haba ↑
Heat gain ↑
Memulakan
Initiate
Suapbalik negatif
Negative
feedback
Suapbalik negatif
Negative
feedback
Memulakan
Initiate
Dikesan oleh
Directed by
Dikesan oleh
Directed by
Merangsang
Stimulate
Mekanisme Pembetulan
Corrective Mechanisms
Gerak balas untuk meningkatkan kehilangan haba dalam
keadaan panas
Responses to increase heat loss under hot conditions
Efektor
Effectors
Gerak balas untuk mengurangkan kehilangan haba
dalam keadaan sejuk
Responses to reduce heat loss under cold conditions
1
2
3
4
Kulit
The skin
1
2
3
4
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5. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
184
13
BAB
1. Otot regang mengendur dan rambut condong ke
permukaan kulit.
Erector muscles relax and hairs lie flat on the skin
• Satu lapisan udara yang nipis terperangkap dan
penebatan haba adalah rendah .
A thin layer of still air is trapped and heat insulation is
poor .
Otot regang
rambut
Hair erector
muscles
1. Otot regang mengecur dan rambut menegak .
Erector muscles contract to pull hairs upright .
• Satu lapisan udara yang tebal terperangkap dan
penebatan haba adalah baik .
A thick layer of still air is trapped for good insulation of
heat.
2. Perpeluhan meningkat .
Sweating increases .
• Badan kehilangan haba secara penyejatan peluh.
Evaporation of sweat removes heat.
Kelenjar
peluh
Sweat glands
2. Perpeluhan berkurang atau tidak berlaku.
Sweating reduces or does not occur.
• Kurang haba disingkir
Less heat is lost
3. Penvasodilatan berlaku di arteriol
Vasodilation occurs at the arterioles.
• Lebih darah mengalir ke kapilari di kulit
More blood flows to capillaries of skin.
• Haba berlebihan disingkir melalui sinaran .
More heat is lost by radiation .
Arteriol
Arterioles
3. Penvasocerutan berlaku di arteriol.
Vasoconstriction occurs at the arterioles
• Kurang darah mengalir ke kapilari di kulit.
Less blood flows to capillaries of skin.
• Kurang haba disingkir melalui sinaran.
Less heat is lost by rariation .
4. Lapisan lemak bawah kulit menjadi lebih nipis .
The layer of subcutaneous fat becomes thinner .
Lapisan
lemak
bawah kulit
Layer of
subcutaneous
fat
4. Lapisan lemak bawah kulit menjadi lebih tebal .
The layer of subcutaneous fat becomes thicker .
5. Otot rangka tidak mengecut dengan cepat dan
berulang-ulang.
Skeletal muscles are not contract rapidly and repeatedly.
• Badan tidak menggigil.
Shivering not occurs.
Otot rangka
Skeletal
muscles
5. Otot rangka mengecut dengan cepat dan berulang-
ulang,
Skeletal muscles contract rapidly and repeatedly.
• Badan menggigil.
Shivering occurs.
• Kadar respirasi sel-sel otot meningkat dan lebih
haba dijana.
The rate of respiration in muscle cells is increased in order
and more heat is generated.
6. Kelenjar adrenal dan kelenjar tiroid kurang dirangsang
Adrenal and thyroid glands are less stimulated
• Kurang hormon adrenalina dan tiroksina kurang
dirembes.
Less adrenaline and thyroxine are secreted.
• Kadar metabolisme rendah , kurang haba dijana.
The metabolic rate is low , less heat is generated.
Kelenjar
adrenal
tiroid
Adrenal
thyroid
glands
6. Kelenjar adrenal dan kelenjar tiroid dirangsang
Adrenal and thyroid glands are stimulated
• Lebih hormon adrenalina dan tiroksina dirembes
More adrenaline and thyroxine are secreted
• Kadar metabolisme meningkat , banyak haba
dijana.
The metabolic rate increases , more heat is generated.
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6. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
185
13
BAB
Pengawalaturan Aras Gula Darah
The Regulation of Blood Sugar Level
• Pankreas mengandungi kemoreseptor yang dapat mengesan perubahan aras glukosa darah.
The pancreas contains chemoreceptors that detect changes in blood glucose level.
• Ia juga adalah kelenjar endokrin yang merembes hormon untuk mengawalatur aras glukosa darah.
It is also an endocrine gland that secretes hormones involved in regulation of blood glucose level.
• Sel hati dan sel badan adalah efektor dalam pengawalaturan aras glukosa darah.
Liver cells and body cells are effectors in regulation of blood glucose level.
Aras glukosa
darah
lebih tinggi
daripada
normal
Blood glucose
level higher
than normal
Aras glukosa
darah lebih
rendah
daripada
normal
Blood glucose
level lower
than normal
Aras glukosa darah menurun
Blood glucose level
decreases
Aras glukosa darah meningkat
Blood glucose level
increases
Aras glukosa darah normal
Normal blood glucose level
Sel-sel Islet di
pankreas merembes
lebih insulin dan
kurang glukagon .
Islet cells in pancreas
secretes more
insulin
and less
glucagon
.
Sel-sel Islet di
pankreas merembes
lebihan glukagon
dan kurang insulin .
Islet cells in
pancreas
secretes more
glucagon
and less
insulin
.
Insulin merangsang
Insulin stimulates
1. Pengambilan lebih glukosa untuk respirasi sel.
More
glucose uptake by body cells for cellular
respiration
.
2. Sel hati menukar glukosa berlebihan kepada
glikogen dan disimpan di dalam hati dan otot .
Liver
cells to convert
excess
glucose to
glycogen
, which
is then stored in the
liver
and
muscles
.
3. Tisu adipos menggunakan glukosa untuk membentuk
lemak .
Adipose
tissues use glucose to form
fat
.
Glukagon merangsang
Glucagon stimulates
1. Sel hati menukar glikogen simpanan kepada
glukosa .
Liver
cells to convert stored
glycogen
to
glucose
.
2. Tisu adipos mengurai lemak kepada asid lemak
yang boleh digunakan untuk menjana tenaga .
Adipose
tissue to breakdown fats which release fatty acids
that can be metabolised to generate
energy
.
Sel hati dan
sel badan
Liver
cells and
body
cells
Sel-sel hati
Liver
cells
Selepas hidangan
After a meal
Suapbalik negatif
Negative feedback
Suapbalik negatif
Negative feedback
Semasa puasa atau
selepas bersenam
During fasting or after
exercise
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7. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
186
13
BAB
Pengawalaturan Tekanan Separa Karbon Dioksida
The Regulation of Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide
• Pernafasan adalah proses luar kawal yang dikawal atur oleh pusat respirasi di medula oblongata .
Breathing is an involuntary process which is controlled by the respiratory centre located in the medulla oblongata .
• Pengawalaturan kadar dan kedalaman pernafasan merupakan mekanisme suapbalik negatif .
The control of the rate and depth of breathing works by a negative feedback mechanism.
Tekanan separa CO2
darah normal
Normal partial pressure of CO2
in blood
Dikesan oleh
Detected by
Semasa senaman cergas
During vigorous exercise
Pengecutan otot-otot interkostal dan diafragma
lebih cepat dan kuat .
Contraction of
intercostal
muscles and
diaphragm
is
faster
and
stronger
Kadar dan kedalaman pernafasan bertambah
Rate and depth of breathing
increase
Pusat respirasi
The
respiratory
centre
pH darah berkurang
pH of blood
decreases
Kemoreseptor di jasad
aorta dan jasad karotid
Chemoreceptors in
aortic
bodies and
carotid
bodies
Kemoreseptor di
kemoreseptor pusat
Chemoreceptors in
central
chemoreceptors
pH bendalir serebrospinal
berkurang
pH of cerebrospinal fluid
decreases
Tekanan separa CO2
darah meningkat
Partial pressure of CO2
in blood rises
Dikesan oleh
Detected by
Kesannya
As a result
Impuls saraf
Nerve impulses
Impuls saraf
Nerve impulses
Tekanan separa CO2
darah
menurun
Partial pressure of CO2
in
blood
falls
Pengecutan otot-otot interkostal dan diafragma
lebih perlahan dan lemah .
Slower
and
weaker
contraction of
intercostal
muscles
and
diaphragm
.
Kadar dan kedalaman pernafasan berkurang
Rate and depth of breathing
decrease
Pusat respirasi
The
respiratory
centre
pH bendalir serebrospinal bertambah
pH of cerebrospinal fluid
increases
Kemoreseptor di
kemoreseptor pusat
Chemoreceptors in
centrel
chemoreceptors
Kemoreseptor di jasad
aorta dan jasad karotid
Chemoreceptors in
aortic
bodies and
carotid
bodies
pH darah bertambah
pH of blood
increases
Tekanan separa CO2
darah menurun
Partial pressure of CO2
in blood falls
Dikesan oleh
Detected by
Dikesan oleh
Detected by
Kesannya
As a result
Impuls saraf
Nerve impulses
Impuls saraf
Nerve impulses
Tekanan separa CO2
darah
meningkat.
Partial pressure of CO2
in
blood
rises
.
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8. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
187
13
BAB
Pengawalaturan Tekanan Darah
The Regulation of Blood Pressure
• Tekanan darah adalah daya yang dikenakan pada dinding arteri.
Blood pressure is the force of the blood exerted on the walls of the arteries.
• Tekanan darah dikawalatur oleh mekanisma suap-balik negatif .
Blood pressure is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
Pusat kawalan kardiovaskular di medula
oblongata menerima impuls
Cardiovascular centre in medulla oblongata
receives impulses
Mekanisme pembetulan:
Correction mechanisms:
Semasa dalam keadaan terkejut
When in a state of shock
Pengecutan otot kardium menjadi
lemah, kadar denyutan jantung
menurun .
Weaker cardiac muscle contractions cause
heartbeat
rate
decreases
.
• Baroreseptor di dinding aorta
dan arteri karotid kurang
dirangsang.
Baroreceptors
in the
aortic
arch and
carotid
arteries are less stimulated.
• Kurang impuls saraf dihantar ke
pusat kardiovaskular
Fewer
impulses are sent to the
cardiovascular centre.
Pusat kawalan kardiovaskular di
medula oblogata menerima impuls.
Cardiovascular
centre in
medulla
oblongata
receives impulses.
• Baroreseptor di dinding aorta
dan arteri karotid dirangsang.
Baroreceptors
in the
aortic
arch
and
carotid
arteries are stimulated.
• Impuls saraf dihantar ke pusat
kardiovaskular
Impulses
are sent to the
cardiovascular centre.
Pengecutan otot kardium lebih kuat,
kadar denyutan jantung meningkat .
Stronger cardiac muscle contractions cause
heartbeat
rate
increases
.
Impuls saraf dihantar ke efektor
melalui saraf simpatetik .
Nerve impulses are sent to the
effectors
via
sympathetic
nerves.
Otot licin arteri mengecut , pemvasocerutan
berlaku. Rintangan pengaliran darah dalam
salur darah bertambah .
The smooth muscles of the arteries
contract
,
vasoconstriction
occurs. This increases the
resistance
of blood flow in the blood vessels.
Semasa senaman fizikal
During physical activities
Mekanisme pembetulan:
Correction mechanisms:
Otot licin arteri mengendur ,
pemvasodilatan berlaku.
Rintangan pengaliran darah dalam
salur darah berkurang .
The smooth muscles of the arteries
relax
,
vasodilation
occurs. This reduces
the
resistance
of blood flow in the blood
vessels.
Tekanan darah meningkat
Blood pressure increases
(120/80 mmHg)
Tekanan darah menurun
Blood pressure decreases
(120/80 mmHg)
Tekanan darah normal
Normal blood pressure
Impuls saraf
Nerve impulses
Impuls saraf
Nerve impulses
Pemvasodilatan
Vasodilation
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9. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
188
13
BAB
Sistem Urinari
The urinary system
13.2
Struktur dan Fungsi Ginjal Manusia
Structure and Functions of Human Kidney
1. Ginjal adalah organ perkumuhan dan pengosmokawalaturan .
The kidneys are the organ of excretion and osmoregulation .
2. Nefron adalah unit berfungsi ginjal.
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney.
Ginjal
Kidney
Arteri renal
Renal artery
Vena renal
Renal vein
Ureter
Ureter
Korteks
Cortex
Medula
Medulla
Pelvis
Pelvis
Tubul pengumpul
Collecting duct
Nefron / Nephron
Sistem Urinari manusia
The human urinary system
3. Nefron terdiri daripada glomerulus , kapsul Bowman dan tubul renal yang panjang. Tubul dibahagikan
kepada beberapa bahagian.
A nephron is made up of a glomerulus , a Bowman’s capsule and a long renal tubule . The tubule can be divided into
several sections.
(a) Tubul berlingkar di korteks membentuk tubul berlingkar proksimal .
The tubule coils up in the cortex to form the proximal convoluted tubule.
(b) Tubul memanjang ke medula untuk membentuk liku Henle yang berbentuk U.
It then extends into the medulla to form the U-shaped loop of Henle .
(c) Tubul masuk dan berlingkar semula di korteks membentuk tubul berlingkat distal .
It returns to the cortex and coils up again to form the distal convoluted tubule.
4. Tubul berlingkar distal akan membawa kepada duktus pengumpul .
The distal convoluted tubule finally leads to the collecting duct .
Glomerulus
Glomerulus
Arteriol eferen
Efferent arteriole
Arteriol aferen
Afferent arteriole
Arteri renal
Renal artery
Vena renal
Renal vein
Kapilari darah
Blood capillary
Tubul berlingkar proksimal
Proximal convoluted tubule
Tubul berlingkar distal
Distal convoluted tubule
Duktus pengumpul
Collecting duct
Liku Henle
Loop of Henle
Kapsul Bowman
Bowman’s capsule
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10. Biologi Tingkatan 4 Bab 13 Homeostasis dan Sistem Urinari Manusia
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13
BAB
Pembentukan Air Kencing
Formation of Urine
• Proses utama yang terlibat dalam pembentukan air kencing:
The main processes involved in urine formation:
(a) Ultraturasan / Ultrafiltration
(b) Penyerapan semula / Reabsorption
(c) Rembesan / Secretion
(a) Ultraturasan
Ultrafiltration
1. Apabila darah sampai glomerulus, tekanan hidrostatik darah adalah tinggi secara bandingan.
When the blood reaches the glomerulus, it is under a relatively high hydrostatic pressure.
2. Tekanan dikekalkan dan dipertingkatkan kerana arteriole aferen yang mempunyai diameter yang lebih
besar berbanding arteriole eferen .
The pressure is maintained and enhanced because the afferent arteriole has a larger diameter than the efferent arteriole.
3. Tekanan darah yang tinggi memaksa air dan molekul terlarut (glukosa, asid amino, garam dan urea)
dalam plasma terturas melalui dinding nipis glomerulus dan kapsul Bowman ke dalam ruang kapsul.
The high blood pressure forces water and small soluble molecules (e.g. glucose, amino acids, salts and urea) in the
plasma through the thin walls of the glomerulus and the Bowman’s capsule into the capsular space.
4. Proses ini adalah pasif dikenali sebagai ultraturasan .
This is a passive process called ultrafiltration .
Arteriol aferen
Afferent arteriole
Aliran darah masuk
Blood flow in
Aliran darah keluar
Blood flow out
Ke tubul berlingkar proksimal
To proximal convoluted tubule
Glomerulus
Glomerulus
Arteriol eferen
Efferent arteriole
Air
Water
Glukosa
Glucose
Asid amino
Amino acid
Garam
Salts
Urea
Urea
Kapsul Bowman
Bowman’s capsule
Ruang kapsul (dengan
hasil turasan glomerulus)
Capsular space (with
glomerular filtrate)
5. Hasil turasan glomerulus mempunyai komposisi yang sama dengan plasma tetapi tidak mengandungi
protein plasma dan eritrosit .
The glomerular filtrate has a similar composition to plasma but does not contain plasma proteins and
erythrocytes .
6. Protein plasma dan eritrosit adalah terlalu besar untuk merentasi membran penurasan di glomerulus dan
kapsul Bowman.
Plasma proteins and erythrocytes are too large to pass through the filtration membrane of the glomerulus and the
Bowman’s capsule.
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(b) Penyerapan semula
Reabsorption
1. Selepas ultraturasan, hasil turasan glomerulus mengalir melalui tubul renal.
After ultrafiltration, the glomerular filtrate flows through the renal tubule .
2. Penyerapan semula berlaku apabila bahan yang berguna (glukosa dan asid amino) dan kebanyakan
air dalam hasil turasan diserap semula ke dalam kapilari sepanjang tubul.
Reabsorption takes place when useful substances (e.g. glucose and amino acids) and most of the water in the filtrate
are reabsorbed into the surrounding capillaries.
Glomerulus
Glomerulus
Tubul berlingkar
proksimal
Proximal
convoluted tubule
Tubul berlingkar
distal
Distal convoluted
tubule
Kapsul Bowman
Bowman’s capsule
Liku Henle
Loop of Henle
Kapilari
Capillary
Duktus pengumpul
Collecting duct
Ke vena renal
To renal vein
Dari arteri renal
From renal artery
Bahan % penyerapan
semula
Substance % reabsorbed
Proses
Process
Bahagian tubul renal melakukan penyerapan semula
Part of the kidney tubule where reabsorption occurs
Tubul berlingkar
proksimal
Proximal
convoluted tubule
Liku Henle
Loop of
Henle
Tubul berlingkar
distal
Distal convoluted
tubule
Duktus
pengumpul
Collecting
duct
Glukosa / Glucose
(100%)
• Resapan / Diffusion
• Pengangkutan aktif
Active transport
✓
Asid amino / Amino acid
(100%)
• Resapan / Diffusion
• Pengangkutan aktif / Active
transport
✓
Garam (Na+
, Cl–
)
Salt (Na+
, Cl–
)
(80%)
• Resapan
Diffusion
• Pengangkutan aktif / Active
transport
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Air / Water
(99%)
• Osmosis
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Urea / Urea
(50%)
• Resapan / Diffusion
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
4. Selepas penyerapan semula, hasil turasan yang tertinggal dalam duktus pengumpul adalah air kencing .
After reabsorption, the remaining filtrate in the collecting duct is called urine .
5. Air kencing mengandungi kebanyakan air, garam, urea dan bahan kumuh lain.
Urine contains mostly water with salts, urea and other metabolic waste.
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(c) Rembesan
Secretion
1. Rembesan adalah proses bahan kumuh (urea, asid urik dan ammonia) dirembes keluar daripada darah
ke dalam tubul renal.
Secretion is the process where waste substances (urea, uric acid and ammonia) are secreted from the blood capillaries
into the renal tubule.
2. Rembesan berlaku terutamanya di tubul berlingkar distal secara resapan pasif dan pengangkutan aktif .
Secretion takes place especially at the distal convoluted tubule by passive diffusion and active transport.
Pengosmokawalaturan
Osmoregulation
1. Pengosmokawalaturan adalah proses mengawal kandungan air dan kepekatan garam dalam badan pada
julat normal.
Osmoregulation is the control of the water content and salt concentration in the body at a constant level.
2. Proses ini dicapai dengan mengawal jumlah air diserap semula daripada turasan glomerulus di tubul
ginjal melalui mekanisme suap-balik negatif .
This process is achieved by regulating the amount of water reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate in the kidney
tubules through a negative feedback mechanism.
3. Penyerapan semula air di tubul ginjal dikawal oleh hormon antidiuretik (ADH) yang dibebaskan daripada
kelenjar pituitari .
The amount of water reabsorbed in the kidney tubules is controlled by the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) released from
the pituitary gland.
Dikesan oleh osmoreseptor
di hipotalamus .
Detected by
osmoreceptors
in
hypothalamus
.
Tekanan osmosis darah lebih
tinggi dari normal.
Blood osmotic pressure higher
than normal.
Tekanan osmosis darah lebih
rendah daripada normal.
Blood osmotic pressure lower
than normal.
Tekanan osmosis darah normal
Normal blood osmotic pressure
Dinding tubul berlingkar
distal dan duktus
pengumpul menjadi lebih
telap terhadap air.
Wall of
distal
convoluted
tubule and collecting duct
becomes
more permeable
to water.
Lebih air diserap semula ke
dalam darah, air kencing
yang sedikit dan lebih pekat
terhasil.
More
water reabsorbed into
blood, a smaller volume of
concentrated urine
formed.
Tekanan osmosis darah
menurun .
Blood osmotic pressure
falls
.
Tekanan osmosis darah
meningkat .
Blood osmotic pressure
rises
.
• Minum kurang air
Drinking too little water
• Perpeluhan berlebihan.
Heavy sweating.
• Minum lebih air
Drinking too much water.
• Kurang pengambilan garam
Less salt intake
Dikesan oleh osmoreseptor
di hipotalamus .
Detected by
osmoreceptors
in
hypothalamus
.
kurang air diserap semula ke
dalam darah, air kencing yang
banyak dan lebih cair
terhasil.
Less
water reabsorbed into blood
and a
larger
volume of
dilute
urine formed.
Dinding tubul berlingkar
distal dan duktus
pengumpul menjadi
kurang telap terhadap
air.
Wall of
distal
convoluted
tubule and collecting duct
becomes
less
permeable to
water.
Kelenjar pituitari
merembes kurang
ADH .
The anterior
pituitary
gland releases less
ADH
.
Kelenjar pituitari
merembes lebih
ADH .
The
pituitary
gland
releases more
ADH
.
Suapbalik negatif
Negative feedback
Suapbalik negatif
Negative feedback
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Hemodialisis
Haemodialysis
• Pesakit yang mengalami kegagalan ginjal tidak dapat mengawalatur kandungan air atau menyingkir bahan
kumuh metabolisme dalam darah dengan berkesan.
Patients with kidney failure cannot regulate the water content of the body or remove metabolic waste from the blood
effectively.
• Mereka boleh dirawat secara hemodialisis dengan menggunakan mesin dialisis .
They can be treated with haemodialysis by using a dialysis machine.
Bendalir dialisis
telah diguna
Used dialysis fluid
Pam
Pump
Bendalir
dialisis baru
Fresh dialysing
fluid
4. Darah terturas kembali ke badan
pesakit.
The filtered blood returns to the
patient’s body.
1. Darah pesakit dipam keluar.
Blood is pumped out of the patient’s
body.
3. Nutrien, protein plasma dan
sel darah kekal dalam darah.
Nutrients , plasma proteins and
blood cells are retained in the
blood.
2. Urea meresap masuk ke dalam
bendalir dialisis mengikut
kecerunan kecekapan.
Urea diffuses into the dialysing
fluid along the concentration
gradient.
• Membran separa telap yang
hanya membenarkan molekul
kecil seperti urea untuk
meresap melaluiya.
A semi-permeable membrane which
only allows small molecules like
urea to diffuse through.
• Menyingkir urea darah dan
mengekalkan komponen besar
seperti protein plasma dan sel
darah dalam badan.
Helps remove urea from the
blood while retaining large blood
components like plasma proteins
and blood cells in the body.
Tiub dialysis
Dialysis tubing
• Mengandungi glukosa, asid amino dan ion inorganik
yang isotonik terhadap plasma darah.
Contains glucose, amino acids and inorganic ions which
are isotonic to blood plasma.
• Tidak mengandungi bahan kumuh metabolisme,
ini membolehkan urea dapat meresap ke dalam
bendalir dialisis.
Does not contain metabolic waste , which allows urea
in the blood to diffuse into the dialysing fluid.
Bendalir dialysis
Dialysing fluid
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Eksperimen 13.1
Kesan pengambilan isi padu air yang berbeza terhadap pembentukan air
kencing
The effect of intake of different volumes of water on the formation of urine
Tujuan
Aim
Mengkaji kesan pengambilan isi padu air yang berbeza terhadap penghasilan isi padu air kencing.
To determine the effects of different volume of water intake on the volume of urine produced.
Pernyataan masalah
Problem statement
Apakah kesan pengambilan isi padu air yang berbeza terhadap penghasilan isi padu air kencing?
How does different volume of water intake affect the volume of urine produced?
Hipotesis
Hypothesis
Semakin tinggi isi padu air yang diminum, semakin banyak isi padu air kencing yang dihasilkan.
The more the water intake, the larger the volume of urine produced.
Pemboleh ubah
Variables
(a) Dimanipulasikan: Isi padu air yang diminum
Manipulated: Volume of water intake
(b) Bergerak balas: Isi padu air kencing yang dikumpul
Responding: Volume of urine collected
(c) Dimalarkan: Jenis minuman
Constant: Type of drink
Bahan
Materials
Air minuman
Drinking water
Specimen
Specimens
Murid lelaki / perempuan tingkatan 4
Male / female students of form 4
Radas:
Apparatus:
Cawan minuman, cawan kertas, silinder penyukat, jam randik
Drinking cups, paper cups, measuring cylinder, stopwatch
Prosedur:
Procedure:
1. Pilih lima murid yang dari kelas yang sama dan arahkan untuk membuang air kencing sebelum
eksperimen.
Choose five students from the same class and ask them to empty their bladders before experiment.
2. Beri murid A minum 200 ml air mineral.
Assign student A to drink 200 ml of mineral water.
3. Ambil contoh air kencing murid pada selang minit ke-30, ke-60 dan ke-90 setelah memimum.
Take the urine sample from the student at the 30th, 60th and 90th minute intervals after consuming the water.
4. Ukur jumlah air kencing yang dikumpul dengan silinder penyukat.
Measure the volume of the urine collected by using measuring cylinder.
5. Rekod semua bacaan.
Record the data.
6. Ulang langkah 2 - 4 dengan menggunakan jumlah air mineral yang berbeza iaitu 400 ml, 600 ml,
800ml dan 1000 ml bagi murid B, C, D dan E masing-masing.
Repeat step 2 to 4 for different amount of drinking water, 400 ml, 600 ml, 800 ml and 1000 ml for students
B, C, D and E respectively.
7. Buang air kencing yang telah disukat dengan berhati-hati ke tandas.
Discard the urine samples properly into the toilet after the sampling.
8. Rekod semua keputusan dalam jadual.
Record the data collected into a table.
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Pemerhatian:
Observation:
Isi padu air
mineral
diminum (ml)
Volume of
water intake
(ml)
Murid
student
Isi padu air kencing yang dihasilkan (ml)
Volume of urine is produced(ml)
30 Minit
30th minute
60 Minit
60th minute
90 Minit
90th minute
Jumlah
Total
200 A
400 B
600 C
800 D
1000 E
Perbincangan:
Discussion:
1. Terangkan apakah hubungan di antara isi padu air diminum dengan isi padu air kencing yang
terhasil.
Explain what is the relationship between the volume of water intake and the volume of urine produced.
Semakin banyak air yang diminum, semakin besar jumlah air kencing dihasilkan. Ini kerana tekanan
osmotik darah menurun apabila lebih banyak air diminum, menyebabkan kurang air diserap semula
dan akibatnya lebih banyak air kencing dikeluarkan.
The larger the volume of water drunk, the larger the volume of urine excreted. This is because the blood osmotic
pressure decreases when more water is drunk. This results in less water being reabsorbed and consequently
more urine is excreted.
2. Hormon apakah yang bertanggungjawab untuk penyerapan semula air?
What is the hormone responsible for the reabsorption of water?
Hormon anti-diuresis / Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Kesimpulan:
Conclusion:
Hipotesis diterima. Semakin tinggi isi padu air yang diminum, semakin banyak isi padu air kencing
yang dihasilkan.
Hypothesis accepted. The more the water intake, the larger the volume of urine produced.
Isu Kesihatan Berkaitan Sistem Urinari
Health Issues Related to Urinary System
13.3
Pembentukan batu karang
Formation of kidney stones
1. Menghalang fungsi ginjal , ureter , pundi kencing dan menyebabkan
kencing yang menyakitkan.
May block the kidneys , ureter , bladder , decreasing kidney function and causing
painful urination.
2. Terbentuk apabila mineral dalam air kencing menjadi tepu membentuk
hablur .
Formed when minerals in the urine become concentrated enough to form a crystal .
3. Faktor penyebab: kekeringan (kurang pengambilan air)
Contributing factor: dehydration (less water intake)
Batu karang di ginjal
Stone in kidney
Batu karang di ureter
Stone in ureter
Batu karang di pundi
Stone in bladder
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PRAKTIS SPM 13
Soalan Objektif
1. Rajah 1 adalah graf yang menunjukkan hubungan antara
aras glukosa darah dengan masa.
Diagram 1 is a graph which shows the relationship between
blood glucose level and time.
Gula
dalam
darah
(mg/dL)
Blood
sugar
(mg/dL)
Masa (min)
Time (min)
200
50
45
40
35
X
Y
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
180
160
140
120
100
80
Ali meminum jus buah yang manis pada 0 minit.
PernyataanyangmanakahmenerangkangrafdariXkeY?
Ali drank a glass of fruit juice at 0 minute. Which statement
explains the graph from X to Y?
A ADH dirembeskan
ADH was secreted
B Glukagon dirembeskan
Glucagon was secreted
C Insulin dirembeskan
Insulin was secreted
D Glukosa diserap
Glucose was absorbed
2. Rajah 1 menunjukkan satu nefron.
Diagram 1shows a nephron.
X
2017
2017
Apakah proses yang berlaku di X?
What process occurs at X?
A Osmosis
Osmosis
B Ultraturasan
Ultrafiltration
C Rembesan
Secretion
D Penyerapan semula
Reabsorption
3. Rajah 1 menunjukkan mekanisme suap balik negatif ke
atas pengawalaturan aras glukosa dalam darah.
Diagram 1shows the negative feedback mechanism on the
regulation of blood glucose level.
Aras glukosa dalam
darah normal
Normal blood glucose
level
Mekanisme X
X mechanism
Aras glukosa dalam
darah meningkat
The blood glucose
level rises
Makan makanan
Food is consumed
Apakah proses yang terlibat dalam mekanisme X?
What is the process involved in X mechanism?
A Glucagon dirembes untuk menukarkan glikogen
kepada glukosa
Glucagon is secreted to convert glycogen to glucose
B Glukagon direncat untuk menukarkan glikogen
keada glukosa
Glucagon is inhibited to convert glycogen to glucose
C Insulin dirembes untuk menukarkan glukosa
kepada glikogen
Insulin is secreted to convert glucose to glycogen
D Insulin direncat untuk menukarkan glukosa
kepada glikogen
Insulin is inhibited to convert glucose to glycogen
2018
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4. Rajah 1 menunjukkan suatu nefron. Proses homeostasis
berlaku di sepanjang nefron.
Diagram 1 shows a nephron. Homeostasis process occurs
along the nephron.
W
Y
Z
X
Seorang pesakit kencing manis mengalami simptom
dahaga dan kerap kencing. Antara yang berikut, yang
manakah menerangkan keadaan tersebut?
A diabetic patient faces symptoms of thirst and frequent
urination. Which of the following explains the condition?
2018
A Lebih banyak glukosa diserap semula ke dalam
kapilari darah daripada W.
More glucose is reabsorbed into the blood capillaries from
W
B Lebih banyak glukosa meresap daripada kapilari
darah ke dalam X.
More glucose diffuses from the blood capillaries into X
C Lebih banyak air diserap semula ke dalam kapilari
darah daripada Y.
More water is reabsorbed into the blood capillaries from Y
D Kurang air diserap semula ke dalam kapilari darah
daripada Z.
Less water is reabsorbed into the blood capillaries from Z
Soalan Struktur
Bahagian
1. Rajah 1 menunjukkan kelenjar X dan kelenjar adrenal yang merembeskan hormon yang terlibat dalam mengawal atur
kandungan air dan garam dalam darah.
Diagram 1 shows the gland X and adrenal glands which secrete hormones that involve in regulating the content of water and salt in blood.
Kelenjar X
Gland X
Hormon Y
Hormone Y
Hormon Z
Hormone Z
Kelenjar adrenal
Adrenal gland
Ginjal
Kidney
(a) (i) Nama hormon Y dan hormon Z.
Name the hormones Y and Z.
Hormon Y / Hormone L: ADH
Hormon Z / Hormone M: Aldosteron / Aidosterone
[2 markah / marks]
2018
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(ii) Kandunganairdalamdarahlebihtinggidaripadajulatyangnormal.TerangkanbagaimanakelenjarXmengawalatur
keseimbangan air dalam darah.
The water content in blood is higher than the normal range. Explain how gland X regulates the water balance in the blood.
• Kelenjar X iaitu kelenjar pituitari kurang dirangsang untuk merembes kurang ADH. / Gland X, the pituitary
gland less stimulated to secrete less ADH
• dinding tubul berlingkar distal dan tubul pengumpul kurang telap terhadap air / The wall of distal convoluted
tubule and the collecting duct are less permeable to water
• Kurang air diserap semula ke dalam kapilari darah / Less water is reabsorbed into the blood capillaries
• Banyak air kencing dan kurang pekat dihasilkan. / Large amount of less concentrated urine produced.
• Tekanan osmosis darah meningkat dan kembali ke normal. / Blood osmotic pressure increases and returns to
normal.
[3 markah / marks]
(b) Terangkan bagaimana tindakan kelenjar adrenal mengatasi keadaan suhu persekitaran yang rendah di altitud
tinggi. / Explain how the action of adrenal glands to overcome the low surrounding temperature at high altitude.
• Hipotalamus merangsang kelenjar adrenal untuk merembes lebih banyak hormon adrenalina / The hypothalamus
stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete more adrenaline.
• Untuk meningkatkan kadar metabolisme / To increase the rate of metabolism
• Lebih banyak haba dijana / More heat is generated
• Suhu badan meningkat dan kembali ke normal / Body temperature rises and back to normal
[3 markah / marks]
(c) Rajah 1 menunjukkan proses hemodialisis untuk menyingkirkan bendalir berlebihan, garam dan bahan buangan
daripada darah. / Diagram 1 shows the process of haemodialysis to remove excess fluid, salt and wastes from the blood.
Tiub dialisis
Dialysis tubing
Terangkan apa yang akan berlaku jika tiub dialisis separa telap diluruskan.
Explain what will happen if the semi-permeable dialysis tubing is straightened.
• Tiub yang diluruskan akan mengurangkan jumlah luas permukaan/ Straightened tubes will reduce the total surface
area
• Masa untuk darah mengalir menerusi tiub berkurangan / Time taken for the blood to flow through the tube decreases
• Kurang urea akan meresap keluar daripada tiub dialisis ke dalam cecair dialisis. / Less urea diffuses out of the dialysis
tubing into the dialysis fluid.
[2 markah / marks]
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