contructs and concepts of research

1. INTRO TO RESEARCH METHODS
SPH-X590 SU15
CONSTRUCTS,CONCEPTS,&VARIABLES:
DETAILS AND DEFINITIONS

2. Presentation Outline
From the beginning:
• Empirical Research & Scientific Method: Dimensions, Directions, & Details
• The Empirical Research Process: Problem Formulation to Dissemination
• Disciplinary Differences: Social, Life & Natural Sciences
From Review to New:
• Refining Research Objectives/Questions
– Originality and Innovation
– Feasibility
– Formal Strategies and Criteria

3. The Research Process:
Disciplines & Differences
• The Research Process of Scientific Method is the same in
terms of its goals, logic, form and format across the Social,
Life/ Health and Natural Sciences.
• Terminology, Taxonomies, Conceptualization, &
Methodological Focus
o vary dramatically from discipline to discipline
o major source of confusion
• The history of scientific research as inner-disciplinary:
research conducted within a discipline.
o Scientific Research as its own discipline.

4. Empirical Research Process:
Social, Life, & Natural Sciences
• You have been introduced to conceptualization & measurement during the discussion of
the philosophy of science and the nature of research.
o Within the context of ontology, epistemology, & methodology
• You were reintroduced to conceptualization & operationalization to illustrate the
structure of research, the process of scientific investigation, and evaluation criteria of
research
o Problem Formulation, Literature Review, Research Objectives/ Questions
o Hypothesis, and Study Design Components
o Reproducibility = Reliability + Validity * Ethics
• This presentation will be a “Re-reintroduction” , BUT in the context of Empirical
Research.
o Former discussions were broad to introduce general components, movement, and
criteria; or,
o Former discussions pointed out paradigmatic and philosophical differences.
o General introduction to research as a discipline
o Practical skills searching and reviewing the literature.

5. The Dimensions of Empirical Research:
A movement from the theoretical to analytical
EMPIRICAL
RESEARCH
Theories
Postulates
Propositions
Hypotheses
Deductive
Reasoning
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Variables
Analysis
Measurement
Constructs
Concepts
Data Collection

6. Empirical Research involves
measures, participants & procedures
An Empirical Research Methodology is explanation
and the rationale of Constructs, Concepts, Variables,
& Definitions and the Study Design these
components indicate.

7. The Empirical Research Process:
D
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D
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C
T
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T
H
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O
R
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Step 1 Identification of Area of Study: Problem Formulation
Step 2 Literature Review: Context
Step 3 Research Objectives to Hypotheses: Content to Methodology
• Concepts to Variables
Step 4 Study Design I: Data Collection Methods
• Research Design: experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-experimental
• Time & Unit of Analysis
Step 5 Procedures: Sampling, Assignment, Recruitment, & Ethics
Step 6 Collection: Instruments, Materials, & Management
Step 7 Study Design II: Analysis
• Statistical Approaches & Analytical Techniques
• Sample Size & Power
Step 8 Results: Dissemination
• Publication, Presentation, & New Application

8. Empirical Research:
Level of Abstraction vs. Observation
• Scientific Investigation operates at 2 levels:
1. Abstraction: Theoretical and Conceptual
2. Observation: Direct and Measurable

9. • For example, consider this theoretical hypothesis/
postulate:
o Early childhood deprivation increases latter learning
difficulties.
o 2 concepts related by the word: increases
1. early childhood deprivation
2. latter learning difficulties
o These concepts are theoretical and/or conceptual:
o Level of Abstraction
Empirical Research:
Level of Abstraction vs. Observation

10. • Empirical research operates at the Level of Observation.
o In the previous example, the research must define the 2
concepts: early childhood deprivation, and latter learning
difficulties; so that observations are possible.
o Conceptualizing is the process of defining to the point of
operationalizing.
o Operationalizing is making the concept measurable: a variable with
the operational definition
Note: The words construct, concept and variables are
often used interchangeably, but they are NOT
synonymous.
Empirical Research:
Level of Abstraction vs. Observation

11. Concepts
• A concept is an abstraction formed from
“generalizations” from “particular observations”.
• For example, the concept of Academic Achievement
is abstracted (i.e. generalized) from activities that
children must learn in school.
o Reading, writing, calculation, drawing pictures, etc. are the
educational activities that children must learn/ master.
o The concept, Academic Achievement, captures the variety
of activities/behaviors and the mastery of these activities/
behaviors in a single phrase/word.

12. Constructs
• A construct is a concept.
o Typically the most abstracted level of a concept: a word
o Constructs are deliberately and consciously created
o Constructs may also have a specific scientific purpose or systematic use
o The terms construct, concept, & variable are often used
interchangeably, which is a huge source of confusion.
o A measured concept is an operationalized variable.
o A measured variable is a variable for which data has been collected.
o A theoretical construct is a construct specified by a theory or used in a
particular theoretical framework.
o A scientific construct is a variable.
o A constructed variable is a type of variable constructed from other
variables ( kind of like a score).
o Be aware of the generic use and specific use of the terms!
o Always find out how the terms are being used!

13. Constructs
• An example of a construct is Intelligence.
• Intelligence is a concept generalized from / is an abstraction of
observations of behaviors related to knowledge, skill, and
aptitude.
• Scientists consciously and deliberately created the construct of
Intelligence and use it for specific/ systematic purpose.
• As a scientific construct, Intelligence means is more than a
concept.
o It is so defined and specified that it can be observed and measured.
o The IQ Test for example.
• As a theoretical construct, Intelligence is less than a concept.
o It is part of particular theoretical frameworks which relate it in various
ways to other constructs.

14. Variables: Levels of Measurement
• As stated before, the terms construct, concept, and variable are often used
synonymously to refer to the phenomenon or properties of the phenomenon they
are studying.
• A variable is a symbol or representation to which we can assign numbers or values.
• The levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio guide the numbers
or values we assign.
• Be aware of other terms and/or groupings for the levels of measurement:
o Categorical and Continuous
o Discrete Ordinal, Continuous Ordinal and Continuous
o Quantitative vs. Quantitative
o Dichotomous vs. Polytomonous
• Remember during analysis, researchers often change a continuous into a
categorical variable, change/collapse the number or categories, and/or combine/
construct variables:
o These details and rationale are essential to evaluating results.
o These details should be in the Methods section of an a research article or proposal.
o In practice categorizing a continuous variable into a dichotomous or
polytonomous variable is convenient, maybe useful conceptually, but in terms of
analysis, a lot of information is lost, so Beware!!

15. Generally, variables are either continuous or categorical.
• A continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of
values within a certain range: negative infinity to positive infinity
• A categorical variable specifies categories.
o The categories are from nominal variable (e.g. Names of States) that were
coded as numbers (Texas = 25, Alabama = 01).
• A categorical variable has two or more subsets of the set of
objects being measured.
• Individuals, Places, Infects, Viruses, etc. categorized by their
possession of the characteristic that defines any subset: a
taxonomy
o It’s all-or-nothing.
Variables: Levels of Measurement

16. • The phrase “qualitative variable” is sometimes used to
describe categorical variables.
o Especially, dichotomous variables: variables with only 2 response:
Yes/No
o Often used in contrast to “quantitative variables”
• The phrase “quantitative variables” is most often used to
refer to continuous variables.
o Theses uses are inaccurate, loose, and distorted.
o Variables are always quantifiable, if they are not quantifiable,
then then not variables.
o For example, the Variable X has only two subsets (i.e. 2 response
categories) and each subset can only have 1 value (e.g. 0 or 1).
o The values assigned to the subsets are quantitative and vary, so it is a
variable.
o FYI, variables with 0 or 1 for response values are “dummy variables”
Variables: Levels of Measurement

17. Constitutive & Operational Definitions:
Constructs, Concepts & Variables
• Defining in terms of empirical research is the process
of conceptualization and operationalization.
o Going from construct to concept to variable
• Two general ways to define:
1. Like a dictionary, defining a word by using other words
• Constitutive Definition
2. Using expressed or implied behaviors to define
• Behavioral or Observational Definition

18. • A Constitutive Definition defines a construct/concepts using
other constructs/concepts.
• An Operational Definition assigns meaning to concept or to a
variable by specifying the activities or “operations” necessary
to measure it and evaluate the measurement.
• In general, two kinds of Operational Definitions:
1. Measured
2. Experimental
Constitutive & Operational Definitions:
Constructs, Concepts & Variables

19. • A Measured Operational Definition describes how a
variable will be measured.
– For example, the self-reported, level of Trust on a 5-point Likert
Scale of agreement with statement
• An Experimental Operational Definition is the details
about how the variable is being manipulated/ how it
operates.
o For example, the concept of Reinforcement can be operationally
defined as the rewards (vs. no rewards) Or punishments (vs. no
punishments) for specified behaviors.
Constitutive & Operational Definitions:
Constructs, Concepts & Variables

20. • The Operational Definition is critical!
o Enable researchers to measure variables
o The bridge between the Abstract/Theoretical/ Conceptual Level and
the Level of Observation.
o No scientific research without observations
o No observations without clear and specific details about what and
how to observe.
o The Operational Definition is are those details: the instructions.
• Although operational definitions are critical to the scientific
research process, variables are limited in capturing/
measuring theoretical constructs: a significant gap between
theory and reality.
Constitutive & Operational Definitions:
Constructs, Concepts & Variables

21. Operational Definitions:
Specific to Broad
• Definitions that refer to a test score are very specific.
o For example, Intelligence is as a score on IQ intelligence
test
• A broader definitions require further specification to
be measurable.
o For example, Frustration defined as “prevention from
reaching a goal” is more general
• An example of a measured variable: Intrinsic
Motivation defined operationally as, “The cumulative
amount of time that each student played with the
pattern blocks with the reward system absent.”

22. Variables: Roles & Relationships
Roles
• Independent and Dependent
• Cause and Effect
• Exogenous and Endogenous
• Predictor and Outcome
• Exposure and Outcome
• Stimulus and Effect
o All mean essentially the same thing!
o Disciplinary Differences or Differences in Research Design
Relationships
• No Relationship
• Positive Relationship
• Negative Relationship
• Curvilinear Relationship

23. Variables: Roles & Relationships
• An independent variable is the supposed cause of the
dependent variable, the supposed effect.
• As general rule, the independent variable is:
o the variable that the researcher manipulates; or,
o the characteristic that researcher uses to assign
participants to groups
• The logic: If A, then B
o An independent variable (A) is the condition of a
dependent variable (B): a conditional conjunction

24. • In experimental research designs, the independent variable is actively manipulated.
o The researcher randomly assigns subjects to a condition: for example, control or treatment
group.
• In quasi-experimental designs, the independent variable can be a fixed
characteristic of a person, for example, or a random effect like a person’s voting.
• In quasi-experimental designs, natural experiments may exist.
o In this situation, the independent variable is “pre-manipulated”: pre-existing/ natural
control and experimental groups; or comparison groups
o For some for logistical, legal/ethical, practical reason, an independent variable that could
be manipulated in an experiment, was not.
• For example, comparing different the effect of private vs. public school education
on cognitive and functional measures of students.
o The independent variable is the type of school (private vs. public)
o The researchers have to study the subjects (i.e. the students) after they had been
“assigned” to a school.
Variables: Roles & Research Designs

25. Variables: Indefinite & Definite
• Active and Attribute Variables
• Manipulated and Measured Variables
• Manipulated and Subject-Characteristic Variables
• Achieved and Ascribed Variables
• State and Trait Variables
• Varying and Non-Varying Variables
• Time Varying and Time In-varying Variables
• Random and Fixed Variables
• Random and Non-Random Variables
• Latent and Manifest Variables
• Latent and Observed Variables
• Indirect and Direct Variables
Generally, BUT NOT ALWAYS, mean the same thing and refer to things about,
for example, a person that can and cannot be changed/ manipulated by the
researcher.
• A person’s eye color is fixed, non-random, ascribed, attribute, etc.
• A person’s voting behavior is random, active, state, varying, etc.
• Subject’s are randomly assigned by the researcher to a control or experimental
condition

26. • The variables can be or are manipulated by the
researcher are active, states, varying, random etc.
– The variable that captures the different things being done
to different groups of subjects/participants: for example,
the stimulus or the experimental group.
• Variables that are fixed and cannot be manipulated
are attributes or characteristic of the subjects/
participants.
o Subjects come to a study with these variables (attributes)
ready-made or preexisting: for example, having blue eyes
Variables: Indefinite & Definite

27. • An experimental variable:
o For example, a researcher gives subjects bogus results on a
Self-Esteem test.
o The researcher divides the subjects with the same measured
level (i.e. Test score) of Self-Esteem into three feedback
groups: 1. positive, 2. negative, and 3. none.
o In the positive feedback condition (i.e. positive self-esteem),
the researcher describes subjects with statements such as
“clear thinking.”
o Those subjects in the negative group (i.e. negative self-
esteem) are given adjectives like “passive in action.”
o The researchers does not give feedback to subjects in the “no
feedback” group.
o They are told that their personality profiles (i.e. Self-Esteem test score)
were not ready due to a backlog.
Operational Definitions:
For Experiments

28. • Terms like attributes, characteristic, behavior, fixed effect
can be confusing for many reasons: generic and specific
uses; disciplinary differences; research design choice, etc.
• Some variables that you might think are attributes of a person
can active, random, a state.
o For example, measuring vs. manipulating a participant's Anxiety
o Anxiety is a trait (fixed) of a person if measured at one point: treated
like a pre-existing condition, treated like eye-color.
o Anxiety can also be a state (random) if manipulated during the
research by inducing different degrees of stress
• Do not assume the same operational definition for measured
and the manipulated variables.
– In this example, Anxiety is only similar in a broad/ abstracted sense,
but is very different in terms of operational definitions.
Variables: Indefinite & Definite

29. Constructs:
Observed & Latent Variables
• Constructs are unobservable.
o variables, when operationally defined, are observable.
• A Latent Variable is something unobserved, but is
presumed to underlie observed or manifest variables.
o Intelligence is an important Latent Variable.
o Verbal, Numerical, and Spatial abilities are concepts of
Intelligence.
o The observed scores on the three ability tests used to measure
these concepts are positively and substantially related.
o Because the three concepts are related to the same underlying
construct, the observed variables (i.e. the observed scores on
the three ability tests) can measure the construct of Intelligence.
o The underlying construct is Intelligence: It is a Latent Variable.

30. • When we articulate a theory, we are articulating in
part systematic relations among latent variables (i.e.
constructs).
o For example, observed behaviors of Frustration and the
observed behaviors of Aggression are not interesting
substantively, even though they are important at the
empirical level.
o What is really interesting is the relationship between the
latent variable/construct of Frustration and the latent
variable/construct of Aggression.
Constructs:
Observed & Latent Variables

31. • Motivation is a latent variable.
• Social-Psychologists invented this construct within the
Socio-Cognitive theoretical framework of behavior.
o This means that researchers must always measure presumed
indicators of Motivation, but cannot measure Motivation itself.
Constructs:
Observed & Latent Variables