1. Module-1
BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
(QUALITATIVE):
Carbohydrates (cellulose-based water filters, PHA and PLA
as bioplastics), Nucleic acids (DNA Vaccine for Rabies and
RNA vaccines for Covid19, Forensics – DNA fingerprinting),
Proteins (Proteins as food – whey protein and meat
analogs, Plant-based proteins), lipids (biodiesel, cleaning
agents/detergents), Enzymes (glucose-oxidase in
biosensors, lignolytic enzyme in bio-bleaching).
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2. • Characteristics of Biomolecules
• Important Biomolecules of Life
• Table: Fundamental Biological Molecules
(Biomolecules)
• Carbohydrates (Cellulose-Based Water
Filters, PHA, and PLA as Bioplastics)
• There Are Three Main Types of
Carbohydrates
• Biomolecules are molecules produced by living organisms
and are essential for life processes like reproduction,
growth, and sustenance. They are divided into four main
categories: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins.
These molecules are found in and produced by living
organisms.
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3. Characteristics of Biomolecules
1) Most of them are organic
compounds.
2) They have specific shapes and
dimensions.
3) Functional group determines
their chemical properties.
4) Many of them are asymmetric.
5) Macromolecules are large
molecules and are constructed from
small building block molecules.
6) Building block molecules have
simple structure.
7) Biomolecules first gorse by
chemical evolution.
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4. Important Biomolecules of Life
Water is essential for life, making up 60%
of any living body. Carbohydrates provide
energy, proteins are for tissue and cell
formation, lipids for energy and nutrition,
nucleic acids for hereditary information,
and enzymes are proteins that act as
catalysts for body processes.
Fundamental Biological Molecules
(Biomolecules):
Sr. No. Small Molecule Atomic Constituents Derived Macro –
Molecule
1 Amino Acid C, H, O, N (S) Proteins
2 Sugars C, H, O Starch, Glycogen
3 Fatty Acids C, H, O Fats, Oils
4 Purines and Pyrimidine C, H, O, N Nucleic Acids
5 Nucleotide C, H, O, N, P Nucleic Acids (DNA
and RNA)
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5. Carbohydrates (Cellulose-Based Water Filters, PHA,
and PLA as Bioplastics)
Carbohydrates are sugar molecules and are one of
the three main nutrients found in food and drinks.
When broken down, they become glucose (blood
sugar), which is the main source of energy for the
body. Glucose can be used immediately or stored for
later use.
There are three main types of carbohydrates:
Sugars are simple carbohydrates that can be naturally
present in food or added to many processed foods.
Starches are complex carbohydrates that need to be
broken down into sugars for the body to use as energy.
They are present in bread, cereal, pasta, and certain
vegetables.
Fiber is also a complex carbohydrate that cannot be
broken down by the body. Eating foods with fiber can
make one feel full, help prevent digestive issues, and lower
cholesterol and blood sugar levels. Fiber is found in fruits,
vegetables, nuts, seeds, beans, and whole grains.
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6. Cellulose: A Versatile and Sustainable Material for Water Filtration
Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate made of 3,000+ glucose units and is found in
plant cell walls. It makes up 90% of cotton and 50% of wood and is the most abundant
organic compound. It is renewable, biodegradable and insoluble in water, but difficult
to dissolve with common solvents.
Applications of Cellulose: Cellulose-Based Water Filters
Interest in using bio-based filters for water purification has grown in recent
years. Research has been focussed on creating bio-based membranes from
cellulose nanofibrils. However, these filters do not sufficiently remove
bacteria and other techniques are needed. One approach is to incorporate
antibacterial metal nanoparticles like silver and copper nanoparticles into
cellulose-based filters. An alternative method is to use positively charged
filters that adsorb negatively charged bacteria onto the filter surfaces,
regardless of size. This allows for efficient and non-selective removal of both
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria from water without reducing the
filter pore size or adding toxic chemicals.
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7. Methods Used
Cellulose filter papers are used for microfiltration, trapping
particulates in a cellulose fiber matrix. It can be used qualitatively
or quantitatively, depending on the application. This includes
nitrogen analysis, SEM, flow rate, bacterial removal, filtration of
natural water samples, and fluorescence microscopy.
LBL Layer by layer. Modification.
Nitrogen analysis.
SEM Scanning electron microscopy.
Flow rate for free flow filtration.
Bacterial removal, and efficiency of
filtration.
Filtration of natural water samples.
Fluorescence microscopy.
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8. PHA and PLA as Bioplastics
Bioplastics are a type of plastic that is derived from renewable sources such
as vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, and food
waste. They can also be obtained from natural biopolymers like
polysaccharides and proteins, or from sugar derivatives and lipids through
chemical synthesis. In contrast, traditional plastics are derived from
petroleum or natural gas.
PLA as Bioplastic
PLA is a polyester derived from renewable biomass sources such as corn,
cassava, sugarcane, or sugar beet pulp. Lactic acid, the building block of PLA,
can be produced via bacterial fermentation of a carbohydrate source, making
the production process sustainable and renewable. PLA offers significant
environmental advantages over petroleum-derived plastics.
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9. PHA as Bioplastic
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are polyesters produced in nature by
microorganisms and used to make bioplastics. Properties and
biocompatibility of PHA can be changed through blending, modifying the
surface or combining with other polymers, enzymes and inorganic
materials, making it suitable for many applications.
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10. Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids are biomolecules essential to
all life. They are made up of nucleotides -
sugar, phosphate and a nitrogenous base.
DNA and RNA are the two main classes,
with RNA having a ribose sugar and DNA
having the ribose derivative, deoxyribose.
Biological Function
Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds found in all living things
that serve as the primary information-carrying molecules and are responsible for the
transmission and expression of information inside and outside the cell nucleus. The
encoded information is contained in the nucleic acid sequence, which is made up of
strings of nucleotides forming helical backbones and assembled into chains of base-
pairs selected from five primary nucleobases - adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine,
and uracil. Thymine is only found in DNA and uracil only in RNA.
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11. DNA Vaccine for Rabies
A DNA rabies vaccine uses a eukaryotic
expression vector with the rabies virus
glycoprotein gene and a suitable promoter.
When tested on mice, it imparted 60%
protection against a standard strain of
rabies virus at a dose of 20LD50.
Rabies Overview
Rabies, progressive fatalencephalitis is
caused by rabies virus of genus Lyssavirus.
Majority ofrabies cases reported from
developed countries involve wild animals
likeraccoons, skunks, bats, and foxes. DNA
vaccines being free from foreignproteins
may not cause the various side reactions,
which may be observed forconventional
vaccines.
Vaccine Effectiveness
Mice immunized with modified antigens
produced Rabies virus-neutralizing
antibodies (RVNA) greater than 0.5 IU/ml,
the minimum recommended by WHO. The
lowest level of RVNA was seen with a TPA-
tagged vaccine, equivalent to an
unmodified antigen-based DNA vaccine.
Vector and PBS immunized groups did not
produce neutralizing antibodies.
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13. RNA VACCINE FOR COVID-19
mRNA vaccine technology has been developed to rapidly
respond to public health emergencies of infectious diseases. It
involves giving cells instructions to create the S protein found
on the surface of the COVID-19 virus. This causes the body to
create antibodies. Improvements to the technology have
increased the feasibility to manufacture mRNA-based products
and decreased associated inflammatory responses. It is
particularly needed in the event of newly emergent pathogens,
such as SARS-CoV-2. International regulatory convergence is
needed to further develop this technology.
Regulatory Considerations
“Evaluation of the quality, safetyand
efficacy of messenger RNA vaccines for the
prevention of infectiousdiseases: regulatory
considerations”
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14. Forensics – DNA fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to determine
the probable identity of a person based on the nucleotide
sequences of certain regions of human DNA that are unique to
individuals.
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15. Uses in Forensics
DNA is present in nearly every cell of our bodies, and can be found in
things such as flakes of skin, drops of blood, hair, and saliva. Forensic
science uses these small bits of shed DNA to link criminals to the crimes
they commit. The process of extracting a DNA fingerprint and determining
the likelihood of a match between a suspect and a crime scene is
complicated and relies on probability. Government-administered DNA
databases, such as the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) can speed
up the process, but ethical issues arise when considering victims' and
suspects' rights. To obtain a DNA fingerprint, a sample of cells from your
body can be taken from your mouth, skin, hair, saliva, sweat, or other body
fluids. The DNA is then cut into smaller segments, copied millions of times,
times, and treated with chemicals to make the samples longer for easier
study.
Obtaining a DNA Fingerprint
Lab workers mix DNA strips into a gel and pass an electric
current through it. A dye is added to make the strips visible
under an ultraviolet light or laser. The more the DNA segments
are tested, the more accurate the profile will be. The pattern of
the strips can then be compared to another sample to find a
match.
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17. Proteins are large molecules that play a critical role in the structure, function,
and regulation of the body's tissues and organs. They are made up of long
chains of amino acid residues and can be found throughout the body. Proteins
perform a range of functions in organisms, such as aiding metabolic reactions,
responding to stimuli, providing structure, and transporting molecules. The
amino acid sequence of a protein is determined by the nucleotide sequence of
its gene. The genetic code is a set of three nucleotides that designate an amino
acid, and the process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template is
called translation.
Protein as Food
Protein is an essential part of a healthy diet, composed of
amino acids used to build and repair muscles, bones,
hormones, and enzymes. Most Australians get enough
protein from food alone, however a variety of proteins are
necessary for those following a vegetarian or vegan diet.
Animal products are known as 'complete' protein as they
contain all essential amino acids, while plant proteins are
considered 'incomplete' as they usually lack at least one
essential amino acid. To ensure adequate intake of essential
amino acids, a variety of protein sources from plant foods
should be consumed.
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18. Whey Protein
Whey protein is a mixture of proteins isolated from whey,
a by-product of cheese production, and is commonly
marketed as a protein supplement. A review published in
2010 concluded that the literature did not adequately
support the proposed health claims of whey protein.
Research has shown that it is slightly more effective than
other types of protein for muscle growth. Whey is left
over when milk is coagulated during cheese production,
and contains lactose, water soluble proteins and some
lipid content. There are several companies innovating
microbe-produced whey and cheese, though the protein
composition of their products is not known.
Types of Whey Protein
Whey Protein Concentrates (WPC) have low levels of fat and
cholesterol, but also contain carbohydrates in the form of lactose.
They are typically between 29%-89% protein by dry weight. Whey
Protein Isolates (WPI) are processed to remove fat and lactose,
and are typically over 90% protein by dry weight. Whey Protein
Hydrolysates (WPH) are whey proteins that are predigested and
partially hydrolyzed for easier metabolizing. Native whey protein
is extracted from skim milk and is more bio-available than casein
or soy protein.
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19. Plant Based Protein
Plant protein is a food source of protein that is derived from plants,
such as pulses, tofu, soya, tempeh, seitan, nuts, seeds, certain grains,
and peas. It is easy to find these sources of protein in the grocery
store as they are high in fiber, vitamins, minerals, and other
important nutrients. Pre-mixing of plant proteins such as soy, lentils,
and chickpeas, or mushroom fermentation, with water, steam,
and/or oil is used to create a product for extrusion. Plant-based
proteins are beneficial for weight loss as they are lower in calories
and fat than animal proteins, but higher in fiber and essential
nutrients. The benefits of plant-based proteins include increased
intake of fiber, lower risk of cardiovascular disease and some types
of cancers, and benefits for weight management.
Meat Analogues
Meat analogues are products that mimic animal products in
terms of taste, texture, and appearance. They are generally
composed of proteins from either animal or plant origin,
insoluble fiber, starch, and further ingredients for taste and
texture. Commonly referred to as meat substitutes, mock meat,
imitation meat, and faux meat, these products are made from
meat-based compounds such as surimi, which is a cheaper and
healthier alternative to meat.
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20. • Lipids:
• Lipids are fatty compounds that perform a variety of functions in your body. They're
part of your cell membranes and help control what goes in and out of your cells
• Lipids contain the same elements as carbohydrates: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (C,
H, and O). However, lipids are mainly made of hydrocarbon chains (or rings) and
contain fewer polar hydroxyl groups (-OH).
• Lipids are a broad group of naturally-occurring molecules which includes fats,
waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids,
and others.
• Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the
amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles,
multilamellar/unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment.
• Although the term "lipid" is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a
subgroup of lipids called triglycerides. Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty
acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides, and phospholipids), as
well as other sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol.
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21. Biodiesel:
Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel manufactured
domestically from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant
grease. Biodiesel meets both the biomass-based diesel and overall
advanced biofuel requirement of the Renewable Fuel Standard.
Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel derived from plants or animals and
consisting of long-chain fatty acid esters. It is typically made by
chemically reacting lipids such as animal fat (tallow), soybean oil, or
some other vegetable oil with an alcohol, producing
a methyl, ethyl or propyl ester by the process of transesterification.
Unlike the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel
engines, biodiesel is a drop-in biofuel, meaning it is compatible with
existing diesel engines and distribution infrastructure. However, it is
usually blended with petrodiesel (typically to less than 10%) since most
engines cannot run on pure biodiesel without modification. Biodiesel
blends can also be used as heating oil.
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23. • Detergents:
• A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleansing
properties when in dilute solutions. There are a large variety of
detergents, a common family being the alkylbenzene sulfonates,
• Detergents are a group of compounds with an amphiphilic structure,
where each molecule has a hydrophilic (polar) head and a long
hydrophobic (non-polar) tail. The hydrophobic portion of these
molecules may be straight- or branched-chain hydrocarbons,
• Detergent molecules aggregate to form micelles, which makes them
soluble in water.
• The micelle can remove grease, protein or soiling particles. The
concentration at which micelles start to form is the critical micelle
concentration (CMC),
• Detergents work better in an alkaline pH. The properties of detergents
are dependent on the molecular structure of the monomer.
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24. • Enzymes:
• Enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions in
our bodies. They build some substances and break others down. All living things
have enzymes.
• One of the most important roles of enzymes is to aid in digestion. reathing. Building
muscle. Nerve function. Ridding our bodies of toxins.
• Enzymes can be classified into 7 categories according to the type of reaction they
catalyse. These categories are oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases,
isomerases, ligases, and translocases.
• Some of the most common digestive enzymes are:
• Carbohydrase breaks down carbohydrates into sugars.
• Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids.
• Protease breaks down protein into amino acids.
• An enzymatic biosensor comprises of an enzyme, which recognizes and then reacts
with the target analyte producing a chemical signal, a transducer, which produces a
physical signal out of that chemical one, and an electronic amplifier, which
conditions and then amplifies the signal. Biosensors permit the analysis in complex
biological media.
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26. Glucose Oxidase Biosensor:
The basic concept of the glucose biosensor is based on the fact that the
immobilized GOx catalyzes the oxidation of β-D-glucose by molecular
oxygen producing gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide [35]. In order to
work as a catalyst, GOx requires a redox cofactor—flavin adenine
dinucleotide (FAD).
The sensor measures the level of glucose in the interstitial fluid (fluid
surrounding the cell) every 10 seconds and changes it into an electrical
signal. The signal represents the amount of sugar in the blood. A small
transmitter attaches to the sensor.
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27. lignolytic enzyme in bio-bleaching:
Ligninolytic enzymes play a key role in degradation and detoxification of
lignocellulosic waste in environment. The major ligninolytic enzymes are laccase,
lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and versatile peroxidase.
Biobleaching, also known as prebleaching, is the process of pretreating pulp with
enzymes. Biobleaching is achieved using several microbial enzymes, that is, laccases,
xylanases, MnPs, pectinases, and LiPs. In general, xylanase has an indirect influence
on the final pulp brightness.
The major ligninolytic enzymes are laccase, lignin peroxidase, manganese
peroxidase, and versatile peroxidase. The activities of these enzymes are enhanced by
various mediators as well as some other enzymes (feruloyl esterase, aryl-alcohol
oxidase, quinone reductases, lipases, catechol 2, 3-dioxygenase) to facilitate the
process for degradation and detoxification of lignocellulosic waste in environment.
Lignin can be efficiently used for the production of biofuel or other useful compounds
by two ways. The first one is uncoupling lignin polymer from other cell wall
polymers and secondly by exploiting the properties of lignin polymer for biofuel or
for the production of other commercially useful compounds.
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