2. In order to understand the construction of narrative and how best to analyze it, the most primary narrative theories
should be examined first. The most basic breakdown of dramatic structure would be Freytag’s pyramid - introduced
for examining tragedy in particular but is and can be applied to most plot structures. The pyramid has been
continuously analyzed by theorists before 1863 when it was first introduced, once again a famous example being of
how Aristotle mentioned before the ‘beginning, middle, and end’ of all stories.
The pyramid explains how stories fall under a beginning phase and an ending phase, separated by the climax - the
most critical and decisive point of a story. This seperation of the key phases of a story is touched upon by other
theories too.
3. V l a d m i r P r o p p , w a s a S o v i e t f o l k l o r i s t
a n d a c a d e m i c i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e
n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f f a i r y t a l e s . A f t e r
e x a m i n i n g m a n y R u s s i a n f o l k t a l e s h e
w a s a b l e t o c o m e t o a c o n c l u s i o n o n
t h e s i m i l a r n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s a n d
p l o t d e v i c e s t h e s e s t o r i e s u s e d = n a m e l y
t h e 8 d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r t y p e s a n d 3 1
f u n c t i o n s t h a t h e l p p u t t h e s t o r y i n
m o t i o n .
P R O P P ' S T H E O R Y
THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE FOLKTALE, 1928
4. The central character around whom
the story revolves. Opposes the
villain. In this example it is Aladdin, a
vagrant with a heart of gold who
dreams of a better life.
A central antagonist that causes turmoil
and obstructs the hero’s path. Jaffar
manipulates the Sultan and plots to marry
Jasmine so he may assume power in the
empire.
The reward for the hero, who may not
necessarily be an actual princess. Jasmine's
marriage to Aladdin at the end fulfills his
desire for love and wealth, ultimately serving
as a reward.
A character that provides the hero with an
object or information central to the plot to
assist him. The genie does this through
granting Aladdin his wishes of wealth and
power.
DONOR
PRINCESSHERO
VILLAIN
PROPP'S EIGHT CHARACTER TYPESPROPP'S EIGHT CHARACTER TYPES
5. Rewards the hero for his service and
bravery, usually with his daughter's hand in
marriage In Aladdin, it is the Sultan who
allows Aladdin to marry his daughter
Jasmine.
The dispatcher sends the hero on his
journey, assigning him a task or quest.
Jaffar disguises himself as an old man and
convinces Aladdin to venture to the Cave
of Wonders.
Often seems to be on the hero's side, but betrays
him or tries to take all the credit for his
accomplishments. Subverts audience
expectations. Jaffar comes close by posing as an
adviser for the Sultan.
Aids the hero on his journey, supporting him
through the story. Abu was present from
the start and serves as Aladdins constant
companion and partner.
DISPATCHER
HER FATHER
FALSE HERO
HELPER
The eight character types do efficiently describe common archetypes in narratives. However, seeing as how even in a film based on a fairy
tale structure fell short of the characters described shows that this method of evaluation is best reserved for folktales rather than modern
media, especially considering it was derived from the evaluation of folk tales to begin with.
6. The 31 functions can be divided into four spheres: the
introduction, the body, the donor, and the hero’s return.
These include certain devices and an overall theme for
each sphere. The introduction serves as the base for the
story where the scene is set for an adventure, the body is
the start of the main story and a course of action is
decided for the hero, the donor phase is where an item of
importance is acquired and/or the villain is defeated, and
the hero’s return is exactly what its title implies - the return
of the hero back to how things were before in a new and
improved state of being.
Take The Little Mermaid (1989), another movie based on a
fairy tale. The spheres are further divided into steps,
around 4 to 11 per sphere.
7. 1. Abstention: Someone goes missing. This can loosely be applied to Prince Eric’s
wreck and Ariel saving him.
2. Interdiction: A figure of importance in the hero’s life forbids them from something.
Ariel’s father Triton, for example, upon finding that she had met and saved a human
prohibits her from visiting the surface and destroys her grotto of human artifacts.
3. Violation of Interdiction: The hero fails to obey the warning. Ariel meets Ursula’s
eels and leaves, disobeying her father.
4. Reconnaissance: The villain of the story is introduced, and shown to be in need of
something. In this case it is Ursula, who wants Triton’s power.
5. Delivery: The villain discovers a new piece of information. Ursula finds that Ariel is
lovesick and may be in need of help for her wish
6. Trickery: The hero is tricked by the villain. Ursula offers a contract to turn Ariel into
a human for three days in exchange for her voice, which later turns out to be a very
bad decision.
7. Complicity: The hero has unintentionally helped the villain further their schemes. By
signing a contract, Ariel has put Ursula in a position of power over her and allowed her
to use Ariel as a pawn to blackmail Triton with for power.
I N T R O D U C T I O N
8. 8. Villainy and Lack: A need for a resolution is recognized. Here, it is that Prince Eric
disregards the notion of Ariel being the girl who saved him because she can't speak.
9. Mediation: The hero discovers the problem. Ariel finds that Eric will be unable to
recognize her now without her voice.
10. Counteraction: A positive resolution is sought by the hero to overcome their problem.
Ariel decides to have Eric fall in love with her with the help of her friends.
11. Departure: The hero leaves on a mission. There is no such step in The Little Mermaid as
this took place before when Ariel had signed the contract and then left for the surface
S
T
O
R
Y
B
O
D
Y
9. 12. Testing: The hero is challenged. Traditionally, this is usually by a gatekeeper
for a magical item of some sort, however in the Little Mermaid, Ariel finds that
Ursula, disguised as Vanessa is using her voice to seduce Eric and can be seen
as a challenge for his affections.
13. Reaction: The hero’s response to the challenge. Ariel rushes to the wedding
the next day and with the help of various animals the wedding is stalled.
14. Acquisition: Item is gained. The nautilus shell containing Ariel’s voice is
broken and she is able to speak again.
15. Guidance: Hero reaches the ultimate destination. There is no such step in
The Little Mermaid, although Ursula does now kidnap Ariel and take her back
underwater.
16. Struggle: The villain and the hero fight. Here, Ursula turns into a giant and
attempts to kill Ariel and Eric
17. Branding: The hero receives an injury or item, or experiences something that
changes them completely, marking them. This happens later when Ariel is
permanently transformed into a human.
18. Victory: Villain is defeated. Ursula is hit by a ship and struck with lightning,
and the curses she places on the merpeople are restored.
19. Resolution: The original lack or problem is solved. Triton sees how much Ariel
and Eric love each other and accepts them.
D O N O R S E Q U E N C E
10. Most of these do not apply to the Little Mermaid, so examples will not be given unless they apply.
20. Return: Hero prepares to go on his journey home
21. Pursuit: The hero may be chased on the way home
22. Rescue: Ending of the pursuit
23. Arrival: The hero reaches home.
24. Claim: Here, the false hero attempts to make false claims
25. Task: The hero receives a demanding task
26. Solution: The task is solved
27. Recognition: The hero is officially recognized and celebrated for their efforts
28. Exposure: The false hero is exposed as a fraud
29. Transfiguration: The hero undergoes a change in appearance. Ariel turns into a human.
30. Punishment: The villain faces retribution. Ursula dies.
31. Marriage: The hero marries the princess and gains power in the throne. Ariel marries Eric, the
prince of the land.
THE HERO'S RETURN
11. Propp's theory's biggest merit is how thorough
it is. It provides a detailed list of character
tropes and steps seen in the construction of
fiction. However, it is somewhat limited in its
application. Even the examples of films based
on fairy tales were unable to follow some steps
and had the same character fill in many roles
in the same movie. The application of this
theory therefore is not incredibly wide ranging
and should perhaps be restricted to fairy tales
only instead of all narratives, as it was derived
from folk-tales to begin with.
ANALYSIS
12. Belgian literary theorist Tzvetan Todorov too
examined classical fairy tales and stories and came
to the conclusion that stories follow a five step path
where the narrative moves forward as a clear results
of the actions taken at every step with a clear
beginning, middle, and end. To illustrate his theory
clearly, I will be using Howl’s Moving Castle (2004) as
an example.
TODOROV'S THEORY
13. The first, Todorov established, is an equilibrium. This is where the setting and what is normal for
the world and the people in it is established, where everything is, at the moment, stable. Here the
central characters are introduced.
Equilibrium - Sophie Hatter is shown going about her daily life with a sense of routine and rhythm,
and is quickly established to us as a simple and diffident yet determined young woman.
14. The second step is the disruption of the
equilibrium, either by a problem or a
character. A conflict is created, which
leads directly to the next step.
Disruption - Sophie meets the eccentric
wizard Howl who helps her out of trouble,
leading to the Witch of the Waste cursing her
out of jealousy due to her own infatuation
with Howl. Sophie is transformed into an old
woman, unrecognizable by anyone.
15. Next is the resolution, where the problem is identified
by the main character and the quest to correct it and
restore equilibrium begins.
Resolution - Sophie leaves home, only to stumble
upon Howl’s castle when she asks a friendly
enchanted scarecrow to help her find shelter for the
evening. There she meets the fire demon Calcifer
and makes a deal with him to help undo Howl’s spell
on him if he gets rid of the curse the Witch cast
upon her. She then starts living at Howl’s castle as a
cleaning lady.
16. This advances the story to the restoration step, where the
events lead to the climax and lead to a final culmination of the
hero’s efforts to fix the problems they are faced with.
Restoration - The country falls into war following a missing
prince. The Witch nearly kills Calcifer and, due to his relation with
him, Howl. Sophie is able to restore him, breaking Calcifer’s spell,
setting him free and healing Howl. She kisses the scarecrow who
transforms into the missing prince and thanks her for breaking his
spell as well. Sophie is youthful again.
17. Finally, the plot advances into the final step - new equilibrium.
This is where normalcy is restored, the bad has been dealt with,
and the world falls back into its regular routine perhaps even
better than it was before.
New Equilibrium - Calcifer returns, missing his friends and the
Prince helps end the war. Sophie and Howl, now in a relationship,
travel the world in the newly restored castle with Marukuru,
Calcifer, and the Witch of the Waste, who is now a harmless and
mellow addition to the family. Howl is no longer as vain and
Sophie is more confident and happy with herself.
18. The idea of an equilibrium, its upsetting, and restoration is a very simple concept that can be
applied to most narratives, mirroring the Freytag pyramid structure. Although it does not go in
a lot of depth, it is accurate in its conclusion that narratives often follow this pattern.
ANALYSIS
Equilibrium Disruption Resolution Restoration New Equilibrium
19. ROLAND BARTHES' CODES
French theorist, philosopher, and linguist Roland Barthes was a prominent figure whose work influenced the development
of schools such as semiotics and structuralism. One of his prominent contributions is his theory on the five codes of media
text which he believed were interwoven into all narratives, and he believed they were either open or closed.
Open texts are narratives with open endings, with subjective meanings one must
derive themself. They can be interpreted in several different ways. One good
example of this is Life of Pi (2012), a film based on a best selling novel that has
several different interpretations of the ending and of what certain elements of the
story were meant to represent.
Closed texts, on the other hand, have a strict, unconditional meaning and all
deviations from this meaning are left inaccurate. To have a different interpretation of a
closed text is to miss the meaning it had. Coco (2017) is a movie specifically themed
around family and making sacrifices for them, and to assume differently is to
misunderstand it.
20. This refers to mystery elements in the story, left unanswered to keep the reader’s on edge and so
they may become involved themselves in trying to answer these questions. The purpose is to
keep the audience guessing until the answers are finally achieved at the end. The truth can be
avoided, kept vague, acknowledged as a mystery, or have red herrings thrown into it to keep it
from the audience. An example of this is How To Get Away With Murder (TV Series 2014-), which
starts each season with a glimpse of a serious crime and then leads up to answering all
questions regarding it towards the end.
HERMANEUTIC / ENIGMA CODE
21. Whenever a story places a connotative
significance on an objective, one apart from its
literal and denotative meaning it is an example of
the semantic code at work. An example of this,
again, is in Life of Pi (2012) where the tiger,
Richard Parker, represented death and the need
to survive as well as the primal side of Pi.
Somewhat like the semantic code, the symbolic
code is when the presence of something in the text
draws deeper and more structural connotative
meanings. Edgar Allen Poe’s The Raven is a good,
albeit dated, example of this as the whole story
revolves around the symbolism of how the raven
stands for the remembrance of his love.
SEMANTIC CODE SYMBOLIC CODE
22. The Proairetic code invokes a sense of tension in the audience through the implication that something is about to
take place. It goes hand in hand with the enigma code, Barth describing the two as "...dependent on ... two
sequential codes: the revelation of truth and the coordination of the actions represented: there is the same
constraint in the gradual order of melody and in the equally gradual order of the narrative sequence."
The Final Destination movie series is a good example of proper execution of the Action code as the movie
revolves around the gorey deaths of people who try to escape fate. The close ups of details and suspenseful
music help imbue scenes with a sense of growing dread provoking a sense of impending disaster.
PROAIRETIC / ACTION CODE
23. Text based upon works that cannot be
questioned and are known to be foundations
for truth, such as science or religion. For
example, The Prince Of Egypt (1998) is a film
based on the book of Exodus about Moses.
REFERENTIAL CODE
These codes are a useful tool in analyzing
narratives and to observe the way in which
media texts use them to construct
meaning in a story. It can be applied
effectively to most forms and types of
media, making it a very versatile and
convenient aid.
ANALYSIS
24. CLAUDE LEVI-STRAUSS
French anthropologist Claude Levi Strauss
introduced the binary oppositions theory for media.
He argued that meanings are constructed not
through narrative but through the presence of an
opposite illustrating the difference between the two
and thus drawing meaning through their opposition.
For example, good and evil. It is not possible to infer
what good is supposed to be if there is no example
of what evil is. To know what is acceptable and
righteous the worse and more unethical must
already be established. This can be applied to
certain genres like classical high fantasy.
25. Although this is useful in the breakdown of genres and story elements, its
purpose seems more general than as an important and useful tool in
deconstructing narratives and analyzing how they work.
26. JOSEPH CAMPBELL
American literature academic Joseph Campbell examined the basic structure of myths and found that
they follow a certain pattern involving heros embarking on life changing journeys, overcoming a crisis,
emerging victorious after a transformation, and returning home successful. As he described it himself,
“A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous
forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious
adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man.”
The Hero’s Journey, or the monomyth, was a template Campbell pioneered in 1949 with his book The Hero
With A Thousand Faces (1949). It consists of steps divided into stages, much like how Propp has
organized his own collection of narrative devices from Russian folklore. The original has been adapted
several times leading to many variations in the structure of the cycle but is generally agreed upon having
three main stages - Departure, Initiation, and Return.
27.
28. The monomyth is a very thorough analysis of
narratives focusing on the journey of a hero. It is
for this reason that it has become a very widely
used theory to analyze the structure of myths
and stories. However, its framework is so vague
it can be applied to virtually anything, rendering
it as more of a given than a method of
dissecting structures.
ANALYSIS
The Star Wars franchise is a great example of a
story following the monomyth in modern media
29. Propp's Theory: It is best suited mostly to the fairytales the basis for this theory was derived from. However, Propp's theory can
still be applied successfully to certain story structures albeit based of traditional stories that fall more into the framework.
Todorov's Theory: An excellent and widely applicable summation of story structures. It divides narrative structures successfully
and does it's job well. It does not provide further insight and can be vague, however it can be argued this is not the point of the
theory.
Roland Barthe's Codes: The codes are an excellent and more detailed insight into narrative structures, particularly the tools
used to construct it. Most narratives can fall under these and it provides concrete definitions and ideas regarding them.
Claude Levi-Strauss and Binary Oppositions: Although it is more useful as a tool for deconstructing meaning in general, the
theory is very accurate in what it attempts. It brings up excellent points on meanings and how we percieve concepts as well as
the underlying themes we assign to concepts.
Joseph Campbell's Monomyth: The monomyth is a widely known and accepted theory on the framework of narratives. It's
application is simple and effective, and there is a lot of writing regarding it that makes it even clearer. However it is vague
enough to be applied to virtually anything, including narratives that don't fit within its definition.
SUMMARY
