1. GLOSSARY
Actor-observer effect: The tendency to make Aptitude: A combination of characteristics
different attributions for one’s own experience indicative of individual’s potential to acquire
or behaviour (actor), and for the same some specific skills with training.
experience or behaviour in the case of another
person (observer). Aptitude tests: Tests meant to measure
individual’s potential to predict future
Adaptation: Structural or functional change that performance.
enhances the organism’s survival value.
Archetypes: Jung’s term for the contents of the
Aggression: An overt behaviour intended to hurt collective unconscious; images or symbols
someone, either physically or verbally. expressing the inherited patterns for the
Air pollution: Degraded quality of air is air organisation of experience.
pollution.
Arousal: The tension experienced at the thought
Alarm reaction: The first stage of the general of others being present, and/or performance
adaptation syndrome characterised by an being evaluated.
emergency reaction involving the mobilisation
of energy through adrenal and sympathetic Attitudes: States of the mind, thoughts or ideas
activity. regarding a topic, containing a cognitive,
affective and behavioural component.
Alienation: The feeling of not being part of society
or a group. Attitude object: The target of an attitude.
Anal stage: The second of Freud’s psychosexual Attribution: Explaining our own or others’
stages, which occurs during the child’s behaviour by pointing out the cause(s).
second year. Pleasure is focused on the anus Authority: The rights inherent in a position (e.g.,
and on retention and expulsion of faeces.
managerial) to give orders and to expect the
Anorexia nervosa: Disorder involving severe loss orders to be obeyed,
of body weight, accompanied by an intense
Autism: Pervasive developmental disorder
fear of gaining weight or becoming “fat”.
beginning in infancy and involving a wide
Antisocial personality: A behavioural disorder range of abnormalities, including deficits in
characterised by truancy, delinquency, language, perceptual, and motor
promiscuity, theft, vandalism, fighting, development, defective reality testing, and
violation of common social rules, poor work social withdrawal.
record, impulsiveness, irrationality,
aggressiveness, reckless behaviour, and Balance: The state of an attitude system in which
inability to plan ahead. The particular pattern the attitudes between a person (P) and
of behaviour varies from individual to another individual (O), the person (P) and the
individual. attitude object (X), and between the other
individual (O) and the attitude object (X) are
Anxiety: A state of psychic distress characterised in the same direction, or logically consistent
by fear, apprehension, and physiological with each other.
arousal.
Behaviour therapy: Therapy based on the
Anxiety disorders: Disorders in which anxiety is
principles of behaviouristic learning theories
a central symptom. The disorder is
in order to change the maladaptive behaviour.
characterised by feelings of vulnerability,
apprehension, or fear. Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts
Applied psychology : The practical application of or ideas regarding a topic.
what is known about the mind, brain, and Cardinal trait: According to Allport, a single trait
behaviour as a result of theoretical and that dominates an individual’s entire
experimental psychology. personality.
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2. Case study: An intensive study of an individual to compete with many others for even basic
or a situation to develop general principles resources, including physical space.
about behaviour.
Compliance: A form of social influence in which
Central traits: The major trait considered in one or more persons, not holding authority,
forming an impression of others. accepts direct requests from one or more
others.
Centrality of attitude: The extent to which a
specific attitude affects the entire attitude Componential intelligence: In Sternberg’s
system. triarchic theory, it refers to ability to think
critically and analytically.
Client-centred (Rogerian) therapy: The
therapeutic approach developed by Carl Conflict: A state of disturbance or tension
Rogers in which therapist helps clients to resulting from opposing motives, drives,
clarify their true feelings and come to value needs or goals.
who they are.
Conformity: A type of social influence in which
Coaction: A situation in which many people are individuals change their attitudes or
performing the same task individually in the behaviour in order to adhere to existing social
presence of others. norms.
Cognition: The process of knowing. The mental Congruent attitude change: Attitude change in
activities associated with thought, decision- the same direction as that of the existing
making, language, and other higher mental attitude.
processes.
Contextual intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic
Cognitive assessment system: A battery of tests theory, it is the practical intelligence used in
designed to measure the four basic PASS solving everyday problems.
(Planning-Attention-Simultaneous-
Successive) processes. Coping: The process of trying to manage demands
that are appraised as taxing or exceeding
Cognitive consistency: A state in which thoughts one’s resources.
or ideas are logically in line with each other.
Counselling: A broad name for a wide variety of
Cognitive dissonance: The state of an attitude procedures for helping individuals achieve
system in which two cognitive elements are adjustment, such as the giving of advice,
logically contradictory, or inconsistent. therapeutic discussion, the administration
Cognitive therapies: Forms of therapy focused and interpretation of tests, and vocational
on changing distorted and maladaptive assistance.
patterns of thought. Counselling interview: An interview whose
Cohesiveness: All forces (factors) that cause group purpose is counselling or providing guidance
members to remain in the group. in the area of personality, vocational choice,
etc.
Collective unconscious: Inherited portion of the
unconscious, as postulated by Carl Jung. The Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects,
unconscious shared by all human beings. and problem solutions that are novel and
appropriate.
Communicable disease: An illness due to specific
infectious agent capable of being directly or Crowding: A psychological feeling of too little space;
indirectly transmitted from man to man, perception of crampedness.
animal to animal, or from the environment Crowding tolerance: The ability to mentally deal
to man or animal. with a high density or crowded environment,
Competition: Mutual striving between two such as a crowded residence.
individuals or groups for the same objective. Culture-fair test: A test that does not discriminate
Competition tolerance: The ability to put up with examinees on the basis of their cultural
a situation in which individuals would have experiences.
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3. Defence mechanisms: According to Freud, ways an electric current through the brain, causing
in which the ego unconsciously tries to cope a convulsion. It is effective in the treatment
with unacceptable id impulses, as in of cases of several depression that fail to
repression, projection, reaction formation, respond to drug therapy.
sublimation, rationalisation, etc.
Emotional intelligence: A cluster of traits or
Deinstitutionalisation: The transfer of former abilities relating to the emotional side of life —
mental patients from institutions into the abilities such as recognising and managing
community. one’s own emotions, being able to motivate
oneself and restrain one’s impulses,
Delusions: Irrational beliefs that are held despite recognising and managing others’ emotions,
overwhelming evidence to the contrary. and handling interpersonal relationships in
Depersonalisation disorder: Dissociative disorder an effective manner. It is expressed in the
in which there is a loss of the sense of self. form of an emotional quotient (EQ) score.
Diathesis-stress model: A view that the interaction Empathy: Reacting to another’s feelings with an
of factors such as biological predisposition emotional response that is similar to the
combined with life stress may cause a specific other’s feelings.
disorder. Environment: Totality, or any aspect of physical
Diffusion of responsibility: The thought that and social set-up that surround and affect
when others are present, one person alone an individual organism.
will not be held responsible for doing, or not Environmental psychology: The branch of
doing, something; other members are also psychology that concentrates on the
responsible and will therefore do the task. interaction between the physical world and
Disaster: A disaster is an unforeseen and often human behaviour.
sudden event that disrupts the normal Evaluation apprehension: The fear of being
conditions within a society and causes evaluated negatively by others who are
widespread damage, destruction, and human present (an audience).
suffering.
Exhaustion: State in which energy resources have
Discrimination: Behaviour that shows a been used up and responsiveness is reduced
distinction being made between two or more to a minimum.
persons, often on the basis of the person’s
(or persons’) membership of a particular Exorcism: Religiously inspired treatment
group. procedure designed to drive out evil spirits
or forces from a “possessed” person.
Displacement: Redirecting an impulse towards a
less threatening or safer target; a key concept Experiential intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic
in psychoanalytic theory; a defence theory, it is the ability to use past experiences
mechanism. creatively to solve novel problems.
Dissociation: A split in consciousness whereby Extraversion: One of the dimensions of personality
certain thoughts, feelings, and behaviour in which interests are directed outwards to
operate independently from others. nature and other people rather than inwards
to the thoughts and feelings of self (introvert).
Ecology: That branch of biology which deals with
the relations of organisms to their Extremeness of attitude: Refers to how far an
environment. attitude is from the neutral point.
Ego: The part of the personality that provides a Factor analysis: Mathematical procedure,
buffer between the id and the outside world. involving correlations, for sorting trait terms
or test responses into clusters or factors; used
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): Commonly in the development of tests designed to
called “shock treatment”. A biological discover basic personality traits. It identifies
treatment for unipolar depression in which items that are homogeneous or internally
electrodes attached to a patient’s head send consistent and independent of others.
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4. Fluid intelligence: Ability to perceive complex Hardiness: It is a set of beliefs about oneself, the
relationships, reason abstractly, and solve world, and how they interact. It has three
problems. characteristics, i.e. commitment, control, and
challenge.
Free association: A psychodynamic technique in
which the patient describes verbally any Homeostasis: A state of physiological balance
thought, feeling, or image that comes to mind, within the body.
even if it seems unimportant. Humanistic approach: The theory that people are
Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to basically good and tend to grow to higher
attribute internal causes more than external levels of functioning.
causes for behaviour. Humanistic therapy: A therapy in which the
General adaptation syndrome (GAS): It consists underlying assumption is that people have
of three phases : an alarm phase which control over their behaviour, can make
promotes sympathetic nervous system choices about their lives, and are essentially
activity, a resistance phase during which the responsible for solving their own problems.
organism makes efforts to cope with the Hypochondriasis: A psychological disorder in
threat, and an exhaustion phase which which the individual is dominated by
occurs if the organism fails to overcome the preoccupation with bodily processes and fear
threat and depletes its physiological of presumed diseases despite reassurance
resources. from doctors that no physical illness exists.
Genetics: The study of how the qualities of living Id: According to Freud, the impulsive and
things are passed on in their genes. unconscious part of the psyche that operates
through the pleasure principle toward the
Gestalt therapy: An approach to therapy that
gratification of instinctual drives. The id is
attempts to integrate a client’s thoughts, conceived as the true unconscious, or the
feelings, and behaviour into a unified whole. deepest part of the psyche.
g-factor: General intelligence factor referring to a Ideal self: The kind of person we would like to be.
basic intellectual capacity underlying all Also called ego-ideal/idealised self-image.
manifestations of intelligence.
Identification: The process of feeling one with
Group: Two or more persons who interact with one another person, usually resulting from liking
another, have shared goals, are or extreme regard for the other person.
interdependent, and consider themselves as
members of group. Identity: The distinguishing character of the
individual: who each of us is, what our roles
Group test: A test designed to be administered to are, and what we are capable of.
more than one individual at the same time,
in contrast to individual test. Incongruent attitude change: Attitude change in
a direction opposite to that of the existing
Groupthink: A mode of thinking in which the attitude.
desire to reach unanimous agreement over-
Individual differences: Distinctiveness and
rides the wish to adopt proper, rational,
unique variations among people’s
decision-making procedures; an example of
characteristics and behaviour patterns.
group polarisation.
Individual test: A test that must be given to a
Hallucination: A false perception which has a
single individual at a time, typically by a
compulsive sense of the reality of objects
specially trained person. The Binet and
although relevant and adequate stimuli for
Wechsler intelligence tests are examples of
such perception is lacking. It is an abnormal individual tests.
phenomenon.
Industrial/organisational psychology: A sub-
Halo effect: The tendency to link positive qualities field of psychology that focuses on
with other positive qualities about which relationship between people and work. In the
information is not available. contemporary context, the emphasis has
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Glossary
5. shifted fr om industrial psychology to Life skills: Abilities for adaptive and positive
organisational psychology, which includes behaviour that enable individuals to deal
industrial and all other organisations. effectively with the environment.
Inferiority complex: According to Adler, a complex Lifestyle: In the context of health psychology, the
developed by adults who have not been able overall pattern of decisions and behaviours
to overcome the feelings of inferiority they that determine health and quality of life.
developed as children, when they were small
Meditation: A technique of tur ning one’s
and limited in their knowledge about the
concentration inward and achieving an
world.
altered state of consciousness.
Ingroup: The social group to which an individual
Mental age (MA): A measure of intellectual
perceives herself or himself as belonging
functioning expressed in terms of age.
(“us”). The group with which one identifies.
The other groups are outgroups. Mental retardation: Sub-average intellectual
functioning combined with varying degrees
Instrumental perspective: The approach that of deficits in adaptive behaviour.
suggests that the physical environment exists
mainly for use by human beings for their Metaneeds: In the hierarchy of needs, those at
comfort and well-being. the top, such as self-actualisation, self-
esteem, aesthetic needs, and the like, which
Intellectual giftedness: Exceptional general can only be satisfied when lower order needs
intellectual efficiency shown in superior are satisfied.
performance in a wide range of tasks.
Modelling: A process of learning in which an
Intelligence: The capacity to understand the individual acquires responses by observing
world, to think rationally, and to use and imitating others.
resources ef fectively when faced with
challenges. Mood disorder: Disorder affecting one’s emotional
state, including depression and bipolar
Intelligence quotient (IQ): An index derived from disorder.
standardised intelligence tests indicating a
ratio of mental age to chronological age. Neurotransmitter: Chemicals that carry messages
across the synapse to the dendrite (and
Intelligence tests: Tests designed to measure sometimes the cell body) of a receiver neuron.
person’s level of intelligence.
Noise: An unwanted sound, one that brings about
Interest: An individual’s preference for one or more a negative affective response.
specific activities.
Normal probability curve: A symmetrical, bell-
Interview: Verbal interaction between a shaped frequency distribution. Most scores
respondent and a researcher to gather are found near the middle, and fewer and
information about the respondent. fewer occur towards the extremes. Many
Introversion: One of the dimensions of personality psychological characteristics are distributed
in which interests are directed inwards rather in this manner.
than outwards (extravert). Norms: Standards of test performance that permit
Kernel of truth: The small element of truth that the comparison of one person’s score on the
may be perceived in overgeneralised clusters test to the scores of others who have taken
of beliefs about groups (stereotypes). the same test.
Latency period: In Freud’s theory of psychosexual Obedience: Confirming behaviour in reaction to
stages, the period between the phallic stage the commands of others.
and the mature genital stage (period from age Observational method: A method in which
4 or 5 to about 12) during which interest in researcher observes a phenomenon that
sex is sublimated. occurs naturally without being able to
Libido: Freud introduced this term. In Freud’s manipulate any of the factors.
treatment, libido was quite simply a direct or Obsessive-compulsive disorder: A disorder
indirect sexual expression. characterised by obsessions or compulsions.
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6. Oedipus complex: The Freudian concept in which overcrowding, lack of public amenities,
the young child develops an intense desire to mal- and under-nutrition, and increased
replace the parent of the same sex and enjoy susceptibility to diseases.
that affection of the opposite sex parent.
Poverty alleviation: Measures/programmes taken
Optimism: The tendency to seek out, remember, up to reduce poverty.
and expect pleasurable experiences.
Prejudice: A prejudgment, usually a negative
Outgroup: Any group of which an individual is attitude that is unverified, and is often
not a member. towards a group.
Peace: It is the absence of hostility and an Primacy effect: The stronger role of information
expression of harmony with fellow human that comes first.
beings and the environment.
Primary group: Group in which each member is
Performance test: A test in which the role of personally known to each of the other
language is minimised, the task requiring member, and in which the members, at least
overt motor responses other than verbal. on occasion, meet face-to-face.
Personal identity: Awareness of oneself as a Problem solving behaviour: The activity and
separate, distinct being. mental processes involved in overcoming the
Personal space: The small area around an obstacles, physical or conceptual, which lie
individual considered belonging to her/him between an animal and its goal.
whose invasion is experienced as threatening Pro-environmental behaviour: Willingness and
or unpleasant. activities of human beings to protect the
Persuasibility: The degree to which people can be environment are pro-envir onmental
made to change their attitudes. behaviour.
Phallic stage: Third of Freud’s psychosexual stages Projection: A defence mechanism; the process of
(at about age five) when pleasure is focused unwittingly attributing one’s own traits,
on the genitals and both males and females attitudes, or subjective processes to others.
experience the “Oedipus complex”. Projective techniques: The utilisation of vague,
Phobia: A strong, persistent, and irrational fear of ambiguous, unstructured stimulus objects or
some specific object or situation that presents situations in order to elicit the individual’s
little or no actual danger to a person. characteristic modes of perceiving her/his
world or of behaving in it.
Physical environment: It is the nature that
includes climate, air, water, temperature, flora Pro-social behaviour: Behaviour that does good
and fauna. to another person, is done without any
pressure from outside, and without any
Planning: In Das’s PASS model of intelligence, it expectation of a reward or return.
involves goal setting, strategy selection, and
monitoring of goal-orientation. Prototype: A schema in the form of a category
representing all the possible qualities of an
Positive health: It includes a healthy body, good object or a person.
interpersonal relationships, a sense of
purpose in life, and resilience to stress, Proximity: The principle of Gestalt psychology that
trauma and change. stimuli close together tend to be perceived as
a group.
Post-traumatic stress disorder: Patterns of
symptoms involving anxiety reactions, Psychodynamic approach: Approach that strives
tensions, nightmares, and depression for explanation of behaviour in terms of
following a disaster such as an earthquake motives, or drives.
or a flood. Psychodynamic therapy: First suggested by
Poverty: Poverty is the economic deprivation. It is Freud; therapy based on the premise that the
associated with low income, hunger, low caste primary sources of abnormal behaviour are
and class status, illiteracy, poor housing, unresolved past conflicts and the possibility
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Glossary
7. that unacceptable unconscious impulses will Roles: An important concept in social psychology
enter consciousness. which refers to the behaviour expected of an
individual in accordance with the position
Psychological test: An objective and standardised
s/he holds in a particular society.
instrument for measuring an individual’s
mental and behavioural traits; used by Scapegoating: Placing the blame on a group for
psychologists to help people make decisions something that has gone wrong, because the
about their lives and understand more about blamed group cannot defend itself.
themselves.
Schema: A mental structure that guides social
Psychoneuroimmunology: Interactions among (and other) cognition.
behavioural, neuroendocrine, and immuno-
Schizophrenia: A group of psychotic reactions
logical processes of adaptation.
characterised by the breakdown of integrated
Psychotherapy: The use of any psychological personality functioning, withdrawal from
technique in the treatment of mental/ reality, emotional blunting and distortion,
psychological disorder or maladjustment. and disturbances in thought and behaviour.
Rational emotive therapy (RET): A therapeutic Self-actualisation: A state of self-fulfilment in
system developed by Albert Ellis. It seeks to which people realise their highest potential
replace irrational, problem-provoking in their own unique way.
outlooks with more realistic ones. Self-awareness: Insight into one’s own motives,
Rationalisation: A defence mechanism that occurs potential and limitations.
when one attempts to explain failure or short- Self-efficacy: Bandura’s term for the individual’s
comings by attributing them to more beliefs about her or his own effectiveness; the
acceptable causes. expectation that one can master a situation
Reaction formation: A defence mechanism in and produce positive outcomes.
which a person denies a disapproved motive Self-esteem: The individual’s personal judgment
through giving strong expression to its of her or his own worth; one’s attitude toward
opposite. oneself along a positive-negative dimension.
Recency effect: The stronger role of information Self-fulfilling prophecy: Behaving in a way that
that comes last. confirms the prediction others make.
Regression: A defence mechanism that involves a Self-regulation: Refers to our ability to organise
return to behaviours characteristic of an and monitor our own behaviour.
earlier stage in life. The term is also used in
statistics, in which with the help of correlation Sensitivity: Tendency to respond to very low levels
prediction is made. of physical stimulation.
Rehabilitation: Restoring an individual to normal, Simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) of
or as satisfactory a state as possible, following attitude: Whether the whole attitude consists
an illness, criminal episode, etc. of a single or very few sub-attitudes (simple),
or contains many sub-attitudes (multiplex).
Relaxation training: A procedure in which clients
are taught to release all the tension in their Simultaneous processing: Cognitive processing
bodies. in the PASS model that involves integrating
elements of the stimulus situation into
Repression: A defence mechanism by which people composite and meaningful patterns.
push unacceptable, anxiety-provoking
thoughts and impulses into the unconscious Situationism: A principle which states that
to avoid confronting them directly. situations and circumstances outside oneself
have the power to influence behaviour.
Resilience: The maintenance of positive
adjustment under challenging life conditions. Social cognition: The processes through which
we notice, interpret, remember, and later use
Resistance: In psychoanalysis, attempts by the social information. It helps in making sense
patient to block treatment. of other people and ourselves.
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8. Social facilitation: The tendency for people’s Superego: According to Freud, the final personality
performance to improve in the presence of structure to develop; it represents society’s
others, or an audience. standards of right and wrong as handed down
by person’s parents, teachers, and other
Social identity: A person’s definition of who she
important figures.
or he is; includes personal attributes (self-
concept) along with membership in various Surface traits: R.B. Cattell’s term for clusters of
groups. observable trait elements (responses) that
seem to go together. Factor analysis of the
Social influence: The process by which the actions
correlations reveals source traits.
of an individual or group affect the behaviour
of others. Syndrome: Group or pattern of symptoms that
occur together in a disorder and represent
Social inhibition: Social restraint on conduct.
the typical picture of the disorder.
Social loafing: In a group, each additional
individual puts in less effort, thinking that Systematic desensitisation: A for m of
others will be putting in their effort. behavioural therapy in which phobic client
learns to induce a relaxed state and then
Social support: Information from other people that exposed to stimuli that elicit fear or phobia.
one is loved and cared for, esteemed and
valued, and part of a network of Therapeutic alliance: The special relationship
communication and mutual obligation. between the client and the therapist;
contractual nature of the relationship and
Somatoform disorders: Conditions involving limited duration of the therapy are its two
physical complaints or disabilities occurring major components.
in the absence of any identifiable organic
cause. Token economy: Forms of behaviour therapy
based on operant conditioning in which
Spiritual perspective: The perspective that hospitalised patients earn tokens they can
specifies to do activities what are desirable exchange for valued rewards, when they
in accordance with the scriptures. It pleads behave in ways the hospital staff consider to
for a harmony between man and nature. be desirable.
Status: Social rank within a group. Trait: A relatively persistent and consistent
Stereotype: An overgeneralised and unverified behaviour pattern manifested in a wide range
prototype about a particular group. of circumstances.
Stress: Our response to events that disrupt or Trait approach: An approach to personality that
threaten to disrupt our physical and seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to
psychological functioning. describe personality.
Stressors: Events or situations in our environment Transactional approach: It includes interactions
that cause stress. between people and environment. Human
beings affect the environment and in turn are
Structure: The enduring form and composition of affected by the environment.
a complex system or phenomenon. Contrast
with function, which is a process of a Transference: Strong positive or negative feelings
relatively brief duration, arising out of toward the therapist on the part of individual
structure. undergoing psychoanalysis.
Substance abuse: The use of any drug or chemical Typology: Ways of categorising individuals into
to modify mood or behaviour that results in discrete categories or types, e.g. Type-A
impairment. personality.
Successive processing: Cognitive processing in Unconditional positive regard: An attitude of
the PASS model where elements of the acceptance and respect on the part of an
stimulus situation are responded to observer, no matter what the other person
sequentially. says or does.
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Glossary
9. Unconscious: In psychoanalytic theory, Values: Enduring beliefs about ideal modes of
characterising any activity or behaviour or end-state of existence; attitudes
that have a strong evaluative and ‘ought’
mental structure which a person is not
aspect.
aware of.
Verbal test: Test in which a subject’s ability to
Valence of attitude: Whether an attitude is understand and use words and concepts is
positive or negative. important in making the required responses.
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10. SUGGESTED READINGS
For developing further understanding on the topics, you may like
to read the following books
• Baron, R.A. 2001/Indian reprint 2002. Psychology (5th ed.). Allyn &
Bacon.
• Bellack, A.S., & Hersen, M. 1998. Comprehensive Clinical Psychology.
Elsevier. London.
• Carson, R.C., Butcher, J.N., & Mineka, S. 2004. Abnormal Psychology
and Modern Life. Pearson Education. Delhi.
• Davis, S.F., & Palladino, J.H. 1997. Psychology. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
• Davison, G.C. 1998. Abnormal Psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Gerow, J.R. 1997. Psychology : An Introduction. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc.
• Gleitman, H. 1996. Basic Psychology. W.W. Norton & Company.
• Sadock, B.J., & Sadock, V.A. (Eds.) 2004. Kaplan & Sadock’s
Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (8th ed., Vol. II). Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.
• Lahey, B.B. 1998. Psychology : An Introduction. Tata McGraw-Hill.
• Malim, T., & Birch, A. 1998. Introductory Psychology. Macmillan
Press Ltd.
• McMahon, J.W., McMahon, F.B., & Romano, T. 1995. Psychology
and You. West Publishing Company.
• Weiten, W. 2001. Psychology : Themes and Variations. Thomson
Learning, Inc. Wadsworth.
• Zimbardo, P.G., & Weber, A.L. 1997. Psychology. Longman. New York.
