Early Childhood Social Development and Play

Early Childhood:
The Social World
chapter six
Invitation to the Life Span
Kathleen Stassen Berger | Fourth edition
1
Emotional Development (part 1)
Emotional regulation (effortful control)
Ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
Preeminent psychological task between 2 and 6 years of age
Self-concept developed within this process
Emotional regulation influences
Maturation
Learning
Family and culture
Effortful control, executive function, and emotional regulation
are similar constructs, with much overlap, at least in theory (
Scherbaum et al., 2018 ; Slot et al., 2017 ). Executive function
emphasizes cognition; effortful control emphasizes
temperament; both undergird emotional regulation. Many
neurological processes underlie these abilities; all advance
during early childhood.
2
Initiative versus guilt

Erikson's third psychosocial crisis
Children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty
when they do not succeed at them.
Protective optimism encourages trying new things.
Optimistic self-concept protects young children from guilt and
shame and encourages learning.
Pride
includes gender, size, and heritage (U.S.)
Involves cognition that supports understandin g of group
categories
Prejudice
Often involves feelings of superiority to children of other sex,
nationality, or religion
Proud Peruvian In rural Peru, a program of early education
(Pronoei) encourages community involvement and traditional
culture. Preschoolers, like this girl in a holiday parade, are
proud to be themselves, and that helps them become healthy and
strong.
4
Brain maturation
Neurological advances
Growth of prefrontal cortex at about age 4 or 5
Myelination of the limbic system
Improved behaviors and abilities
Longer attention span
Improved capacity for self-control

Emotional regulation and cognitive maturation develop
together, each enabling the other to advance
5
Emotional regulation and cognitive maturation develop
together, each enabling the other to advance.
Maturation matters
Learning matters
Culture matters
6
Motivation propels action and is derived from personal or social
context.
Intrinsic motivation
Drive, or reason to pursue a goal
Comes from inside a person
Apparent in intrinsic joy, invented dialogues, and imaginary
friends
Extrinsic motivation
Drive, or reason to pursue a goal
Arises from the need to have achievements rewarded from
outside
7

Praise
Distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is crucial
in understanding how and when to praise something the child
has done.
Effectiveness of praise tied to:
Praise of particular production and not general trait
Specific praise for effort and not generalized statement
The distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation may
be crucial in understanding how and when to praise something
the child has done.
8
Play (part 1)
Play is the most productive and enjoyable activity that children
undertake.
Play is universal.
Has occurred for many thousands of years
Reported in every part of the world
Vygotsky on play
Makes children “a head taller” than their actual height.
Real or Fake? This photo may be staged, but the children show
the power of imagination—each responding to his or her cape in
a unique way. Sociodramatic play is universal; children do it if
given half a chance.
9
Play (part 2)

Playmates
Young children play best with peers.
Most infant play: Solitary or with parent
Toddlers: Slowly become better playmates
Young children: Best with peers
Peers provide an audience, role models, and sometimes
competition.
Play (part 3)
The historical context: A century ago
Families had more children and fewer working mothers.
Children played outside with neighboring children of several
ages.
Older children looked out for the younger ones.
Games allowed each child to play at their own level.
As children grow older, play becomes more social, influenced
by brain maturation, playmate availability, and the physical
setting.
11
Play (part 4)
Types of play: Parten (1932)
Solitary play
Onlooker play
Parallel play
Associative play
Cooperative play
Research on children today find much more age variation than
Parten did.

Why do you think this occurs?
Solitary play: A child plays alone, unaware of any other
children playing nearby.
Onlooker play: A child watches other children play.
Parallel play: Children play with similar toys in similar ways,
but not together.
Associative play: Children interact, observing each other and
sharing material, but their play is not yet mutual and reciprocal.
Cooperative play: Children play together, creating and
elaborating a joint activity or taking turns.
Research on contemporary children finds much more age
variation than
Parten did, perhaps because family size is smaller and parents
invest heavily in each child, rarely telling them to “go out and
play and come back when it gets dark.”
12
Play (part 5)
Social play
Two general kinds of play
Solitary
Social
Form of play changes with age, cohort, and culture.
Play with peers is one of the most important areas in which
children develop positive social skills.
Finally Cooperating The goal of social play—cooperation—is

shown by these two boys, who at ages 8 and 11 are long past the
associative, self-absorbed play of younger children. Note the
wide open mouths of laughter over a shared video game—a
major accomplishment.
13
Play (part 6)
Rough-and-tumble play
Mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting with
no intention to harm.
Contains expressions and gestures (e.g., play face) signifying
that the child is “just pretending.”
Is particularly common among young males.
Advances children's social understanding but increases
likelihood of injury.
May positively affect limbic system development.
Ample space, distant adults, and presence of friends increase
likelihood of rough-and-tumble play.
14
Play (part 7)
Sociodramatic play
Allows children to act out various roles and themes in stories
that they create.
Sociodramatic play enables children to:
Explore and rehearse the social roles.
Test their ability to explain.
Practice regulating their emotions.
Develop a self-concept.
Joy Supreme Pretend play in early childhood is thrilling and

powerful. For this dancing 7-year-old from Park Slope,
Brooklyn, pretend play overwhelms mundane realities, such
as an odd scarf or awkward arm.
15
Play (part 8)
Good Over Evil or Evil Over Good?
Boys everywhere enjoy “strong man” fantasy play, as the
continued popularity of Spider-Man and Superman attests.
These boys follow that script. Both are Afghan refugees now in
Pakistan.
Play (part 9)
Learning by Playing
Fifty years ago, the average child spent three hours a day in
outdoor play.
Video games and television have largely replaced that,
especially in cities.
Children seem safer if parents can keep an eye on them, but
what are they learning?
The long-term effects on brain and body may be dangerous.
Do you agree or disagree?
Pediatricians, psychologists, and teachers all report extensive
research that screen time reduces conversation, imagination, and
outdoor activity ( Downing et al., 2017 ). Overall, the
American Academy of Pediatrics (2016) recommends no more
than an hour a day of any screen time for preschoolers and
suggests that supervision prevents violent or sexual media,
avoiding racist and sexist stereotypes. However, many young
children watch more than recommended, unsupervised, not only
in the United States but also in other nations.

17
Challenges for Caregivers (part 1)
Styles of Caregiving
Parenting styles vary within nations, ethnic groups,
neighborhoods—even families.
Baumrind’s categories
Parents differ on four important dimensions.
Expressions of warmth
Strategies for discipline
Communication
Expectations for maturity
On the basis of these dimensions, three parenting styles were
identified. A fourth style was suggested by other researchers.
Expressions of warmth: From very affectionate to cold and
critical
Strategies for discipline: Parents vary in whether and how they
explain, criticize, persuade, ignore, and punish.
Communication: Some parents listen patiently to their children;
others demand silence.
Expectations for maturity: Parents vary in the standards they
set for their children regarding responsibility and self-control.
18
Baumrind’s styles of caregiving
Authoritarian parenting: High behavioral standards, strict
punishment of misconduct, and little communication
Permissive parenting: High nurturance and communication but
little discipline, guidance, or control
Authoritative parenting: Parents set limits and enforce rules but
are flexible and listen to their children.

See Table 6.1 for additional information.
19
Problems with the research
Original sample had little economic, ethnic, or cultural
diversity.
More focus was on attitudes than on daily interactions.
No recognition that some authoritarian parents are very loving
toward their children.
No recognition that some permissive parents guide their
children intensely, but with words, not rules.
Child's contribution to the parent-child relationship overlooked.
Discipline
Punishment rates increase dramatically from infancy to early
childhood.
Most parents use several methods.
Physical (corporal) punishment
Discipline techniques that hurt the body of someone, from
spanking to serious harm, including death.
Spanking opinions are influenced by past experience and
cultural norms.
What does the research suggest?

Spanking is more frequent:
in the southern United States than in New England.
by mothers than by fathers.
among conservative Christians than among nonreligious
families.
among African Americans than among European Americans.
among European Americans than among Asian Americans.
among U.S.-born Hispanics than among immigrant Hispanics.
in low-SES families than in high-SES families.
These are general trends, but do not stereotype.
Contrary to these generalizations, some African American
mothers living in the South never spank, and some secular,
European American, high-SES fathers in New England routinely
do. Local norms matter, but individual parents make their own
decisions.
22
Culture powerfully affects caregiving style.
Difference apparent in multiethnic nations
Differences between majority and minority U.S. families should
not be exaggerated.
Parents of all groups usually show warmth to their children.
Harsh, cold parenting appears harmful in every group.
Spanking
Physical punishment increases obedience temporarily, but
increases the possibility of later aggression, bullying, and
abusive adolescent and adult behaviors.
Children who are not spanked are more likely to develop self-

control.
Cultural influence, background, and context are notable across
the U.S. and the world.
Some researchers believe that physical punishment is harmless;
some do not.
24
Alternatives to spanking
Psychological control
Disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw
love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and
gratitude to the parents.
Time-out
Disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other
people and activities for a specified time.
Induction
Disciplinary technique in which parent tries to get the child to
understand why a certain behavior was wrong. Listening, not
lecturing, is crucial.
Becoming Boys and Girls: Sex and Gender
Sex differences are biological differences between males and
females, in organs, hormones, and body shape.
Gender differences are differences in male and female roles,
behaviors, clothes, and so on that arise from society, not
biology
Children who identify as transgender present parents with
special challenges.
Recent research suggest that most adults thought parent should
encourage their children to play with toys associated with the

other sex.
The highest disagreement was expressed by men regarding boys:
43 percent of the men thought boys should not be encouraged to
do things usually stereotyped for girls, such as care for dolls,
jump rope, or wear bracelets
26
Sex and Gender
Gender differences
Pervasive and lifelong
Age 2: Gender labels used
Age 4: Gender assignment to toys and roles
Age 6: Gender detectives
Rigid male-female roles may be adopted
Regarding sex and gender, scientists need to “treat culture and
biology not as separate influences but as interacting components
of nature and nurture” ( Eagly & Wood, 2013 , p. 349).
27
Theories of Gender Role Development
(part 1)
Psychoanalytical Theory
Phallic stage: Freud's third stage of development, when the
penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure
Oedipus complex: The unconscious desire of young boys to
replace their fathers and win their mothers' exclusive love
Identification: Considering the behaviors, appearance, and
attitudes of someone else to be one’s own
(part 2)

Behaviorism
Gender differences
Product of ongoing reinforcement and punishment
Are learned through all roles, values, and morals.
"Gender-appropriate"
Rewarded more frequently than "gender-inappropriate" behavior
Social learning theory (extension of behaviorism)
Children notice the ways men and women behave and
internalize the standards they observe.
(part 3)
Cognitive theories
Cognitive theory
Offers an alternative explanation for the strong gender identity
that becomes apparent at about age 5.
Gender schema
Child's cognitive concept or general belief about sex differences
Based on his or her observations and experiences
Young children categorize themselves and everyone else as
either male or female and then think and behave accordingly.
30
(part 4)
Evolutionary theory
Sexual attraction is crucial for basic urge to reproduce.
Males and females try to look attractive to the other sex in
gendered ways.
Young boys and girls practice becoming attractive to the other
sex.

31
Which developmental theory is best?
Teaching right from wrong
Sense of right and wrong is outgrowth of bonding, attachment,
and cognitive maturation.
Protecting, cooperating, and sacrificing are part of species
survival.
Innate moral impulses strengthened through cognitive advances
and peer interactions.
Moral development
Prosocial behavior
Extending helpfulness and kindness without any obvious benefit
to oneself: Increases with maturity
Empathy
Antisocial actions
Deliberately hurting another person, including people who have
done no harm: Declines with maturity
Antipathy
Pinch, Poke, or Pat—Antisocial and prosocial responses are
actually a sign of maturation. Babies do not recognize the
impact of their actions. These children have much more to
learn, but they already are quite social.

Empathy
Understanding emotions and concerns of another person,
especially when they differ from one's own
Antipathy
Feelings of dislike or even hatred for another person
34
General types of aggression
Instrumental
Reactive
Relational
Bullying
All forms of aggression usually become less common from ages
2 to 6, as the brain matures and empathy increases.
Children learn to use aggression selectively, and that decreases
both victimization and aggression.
See Table 6.2 for additional information about types, definition,
and comments about aggression.
Instrumental aggression: Hurtful behavior that is intended to get
something that another person has and to keep it.
Reactive aggression: An impulsive retaliation for another
person's intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical.
Relational aggression: Nonphysical acts, such as insults or
social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection
between the victim and other people.
Bullying aggression: Unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal
attack, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend
themselves.
35

Harm to Children (part 1)
Injury
Injury control/harm reduction: Reducing the potential negative
consequences of behavior
More children harmed by deliberate or accidental violence than
any specific disease, especially 2-to 6-year-olds.
Why are young children so vulnerable?
Impulsivity (prefrontal cortex immaturity)
36
Child maltreatment
Now refers to intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of
anyone under 18 years of age
Is neither rare nor sudden
Most often involves one or both parents
Getting Better?
As you can see, the number of victims of child maltreatment in
the United States has declined in the past decade. The legal and
social-work response to serious maltreatment has improved over
the years, which is a likely explanation for the decline. Other
less sanguine explanations are possible, however.
37
Definitions
Child abuse

Deliberate action that is harmful to a child’s physical,
emotional, or sexual well-being.
Child neglect
Failure to meet a child’s basic physical, educational, or
emotional needs.
Substantiated maltreatment
Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and
verified
Reported maltreatment
Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the
authorities
The 5-to-1 ratio of reported versus substantiated cases occurs
because:
Each child is counted only once.
Substantiation requires proof.
Mandated reports are required signs of possible maltreatment.
Some reports are screened out.
Some reports are deliberately false.
Frequency of maltreatment
Not all instances are noticed, reported, substantiated, but
positive trends are fluctuating.
Things to consider
Definitions
National awareness (more effective reporting and prevention)
Growing rich-poor gap in families
Differences in willingness to report
Young ages of victims

Still Far Too
Many The number of substantiated cases of maltreatment of
children under age 18 in the United States is too high, but there
is some good news: The rate has declined significantly from its
peak (15.3) in 1993.
41
Symptoms of maltreated children coincide with PTSD.
Some maltreated children suffer from PTSD, with signs of
neurological, emotional, and behavioral damage.
See Table 6.3 for signs of maltreatment in children aged 2 to 10
42
Consequences of Maltreatment
Effects of maltreatment are devastating and long-lasting.
Mistreated and neglected children
Regard people as hostile and exploitative.
Are less friendly, more aggressive, and more isolated than other
children.
Experience greater social deficits.
May experience large and enduring economic consequences.
See Table 6.3 for additional information about signs of
maltreatment in children aged 2 to 10.

Children who were neglected also experience greater social
deficits than abused ones because they were unable to relate to
anyone, even in infancy.
Abused and neglected children experience large and enduring
economic consequences.
43
Preventing harm
Levels of prevention
In primary prevention, the overall conditions are structured to
make harm less likely. Laws and customs are crucial to reduce
injury for people of every age.
Secondary prevention is more targeted, averting harm in high-
risk situations or for vulnerable individuals.
Tertiary prevention begins after an injury has already occurred,
limiting damage.
All levels of prevention require helping caregivers to provide a
safe, nurturing, and stable home.
When a child is removed from home and entrusted to another
adult/s
Foster care
Kinship care
Adoption difficulties
Judges and biological parents are reluctant to release children
for adoption.
Most adoptive parents prefer infants.
Some agencies screen out families not headed by heterosexual

couples.
Some professionals insist that adoptive parents be of the same
ethnicity and/or religion as the child.
Early Childhood:
Body and Mind
chapter five
Invitation to the Life Span
Kathleen Stassen Berger | Fourth edition
1
Body Changes (part 1)
Growth Patterns
Weight and height increases and the relationship between these
measurements changes.
Average body mass index (BMI) is lower than at any other time
of life.
Children become slimmer as the lower body lengthens.
Center of gravity moves from the breastbone down to the belly
button.
BMI = ratio of weight to height.
By the end of early childhood, the infant’s protruding belly,
round face, short limbs, and large head are distant memories.
2

Nutrition
Children in food-insecure households are more likely as adults
to overeat when they are not hungry.
In low-income family cultures, parents tend to guard against
undernutrition and rely on fast foods, so their children are
especially vulnerable to obesity.
Many parents of overweight children believe their children are
thinner than they actually are.
Appetite decreases between ages 2 and 6 because young
children naturally grow more slowly than they did as infants.
3
Nutrition
Weight gain in early childhood is fluid and may be influenced
by parental and child care dietary choices for children.
Oral health
Teeth are influenced by diet and health.
Tooth decay correlates with obesity.
Infected teeth may indicate or create health problems.
Allergies
Food allergies
About 3 to 8 percent of all young children have a food allergy,
usually to a healthy, common food.
Cow's milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, soy, wheat, and shellfish
are frequent culprits.
Diagnostic standards and treatments vary.

5
Brain Development (part 1)
Size
By age 2, a child's brain weighs 75 percent of what it will in
adulthood.
The brain reaches 90 percent of adult weight by age 6.
Myelin development contributes to this increased weight.
This brain scan of a 38-yearold depicts areas of myelination
(the various colors) within the brain. As you see, the two
hemispheres are quite similar, but not identical. For most
important skills and concepts, both halves of the brain are
activated. Myelin is a fatty coating on the axons that speeds
signals between neurons. A gradual increase in myelination
makes 5-year-olds much quicker at thinking than 3-year-olds,
who are quicker than toddlers.
6
Brain Development (part 2)
From ages 2 to 6, maturation of the prefrontal cortex has several
notable benefits.
Sleep becomes more regular.
Emotions become more nuanced and responsive.
Temper tantrums decrease or subside.
Uncontrollable laughter and tears are less common.

Inside the Brain: Connected Hemispheres
Corpus callosum
Is part of the brain that grows and myelinates rapidly during
early childhood.
Consists of a band of nerve fibers that connects the left and
right sides of the brain.
Facilitates communication between the two brain hemispheres.
Lateralization
Begins with genes.
Refers to the specialization in certain functions by each side of
the brain, with one side dominant for each activity.
8
The Left-Handed Child
Left-handedness
Shown in some newborns
Discouraged and not accommodated in many cultures or
contexts
Is advantageous in some professions
Can you identify any of these?
Dexterity in Evidence She already holds the pen at the proper
angle with her thumb, index finger, and middle finger — an
impressive example of dexterity for a 3-yearold. However,
dexter is Latin for “right” — evidence of an old prejudice that
is no longer apparent here.
9
Impulsiveness and Perseveration

Brain maturation (innate) and emotional regulation (learned)
eventually allow most children to focus and switch as needed
within their culture.
Before such maturation, many young children jump from task to
task; they cannot stay quiet.
Other children engage in perseveration.
No young child is perfect at regulating attention, because
immaturity of the prefrontal cortex makes it impossible to
moderate the limbic system. Impulsiveness and perseveration
follow
Engaging perseveration, some children persevere in, or stick to,
one thought or action, unable to quit.
10
Stress and the Brain
Relationship between stress and brain activity depends on age
and degree of stress.
Developmentally appropriate stress aids cognition.
Excessive stress-hormone levels early in life may permanently
damage brain pathways, especially in maltreated children.
Shrinkage of various brain regions and white matter
Thinking During Early Childhood
(part 1)
Piaget: Preoperational thought
Preoperational means “before (pre) logical operations
(reasoning processes).”
The child's verbal ability permits symbolic thinking and
explains animism.
Preoperational thought is symbolic and magical, not logical and
realistic.

Symbolic thought: A major accomplishment of preoperational
intelligence that allows a child to think symbolically, including
understanding that words can refer to things not seen and that
an item, such as a flag, can symbolize something else (in this
case, a country).
12
(part 2)
Obstacles to logic
Centration
Characteristic of preoperational thought, whereby a young child
focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others
Egocentrism
Young children's tendency to think about the world entirely
from their own personal perspective
Focus on appearance
ignores all attributes that are not apparent
13
(part 3)
Obstacles to logic
Static reasoning
thinks that nothing changes; whatever is now has always been
and always will be.

Irreversibility
thinks that nothing can be undone; a thing cannot be restored to
the way it was before a change occurred.
(part 4)
Conservation and logic
Conservation
Principle stating that the amount of a substance remains the
same (i.e., is conserved) when its appearance changes
Easy questions; obvious answer
(above left) Sadie, age 5, carefully makes sure both glasses
contain the same amount. (above right) When one glass of pink
lemonade is poured into a wide jar, she triumphantly points to
the tall glass as having more. Sadie is like all 5-year-olds; 7-
year-olds know better.
15
(part 5)
One Logical Concept (Conservation), Many Manifestations
According to Piaget, until children grasp the concept of
conservation at (he believed) about age 6 or 7, they cannot
understand that the transformations shown here do not change
the total amount of liquid, checkers, clay, and wood.
16

(part 6)
Vygotsky: Social learning
Every aspect of children's cognitive development is embedded
in the sociocultural context.
Children learn from guided participation through mentors.
Mentors
Present challenges
Offer assistance (without taking over).
Add crucial information.
Encourage motivation.
Most shirts for 4-year- olds are wide- necked and without
buttons, so preschoolers can put them on themselves. But the
skill of buttoning is best learned from a mentor, who knows how
to
increase motivation.
17
(part 7)
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Vygotsky's term for the skills that a person can exercise only
with assistance, not yet independently
Scaffolding
Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and
abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in
a given learning process

(part 8)
Overimitation
Universal
Tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant
part of the behavior to be learned
Common among 2- to 6-year-olds who will imitate adult actions
that are irrelevant and inefficient
(part 9)
Language as a tool
Vygotsky considered language pivotal.
Private speech involves internal dialogue when talking to self.
Social mediation advances and expands understanding
STEM learning
Practical use of Vygotsky’s theory concerns STEM (science,
technology, engineering, math) education.
Social mediation function of speech occurs as mentors guide
mentees in their zone of proximal development, learning
numbers, recalling memories, and following routines.
20
(part 10)

Executive function
Involves cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many
thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain
Is comprised of working memory, cognitive flexibility, and
inhibitory control
Allows the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior
Relates closely to emotional regulation throughout life
(part 11)
Contrast between Piaget and Vygotsky
Piaget highlighted the child’s own curiosity and brain
maturation in learning.
Vygotsky stressed mentors, especially parents and teachers, in
guiding children’s learning.
But…both theories recognized that young children are
prodigious learners who strive to understand their world.
Children’s Theories (part 1)
Theory-theory
Children naturally attempt to explain everything they see and
hear.
They develop theories about intentions before they employ their
impressive ability to imitate.
23

Theory of mind
Person's theory of what other people might be thinking
Emergent ability, slow to develop but typically beginning in
most children at about age 4
Can be seen when young children try to escape punishment by
lying
In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that
other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that
they themselves are. That realization is seldom achieved before
age 4.
24
Brain and context
Child's ability to develop theories correlates with the maturity
of the prefrontal cortex and with advances in executive
processing.
Executive functions lead to better understanding of false belief.
Context, experience, and culture are relevant.
A View from Science: Witness to a Crime
Younger children
Are sometimes more accurate than older witnesses who are
influenced by prejudice and stereotypes.
May confuse time, place, person, and action.
Can develop false ideas from words, expressions, and
scaffolding memories.

May believe an abusive act is OK is an adult says it is.
Optimizing witness effectiveness
Reducing stress, especially toxic stress
Balancing arousal and reassurance
Using appropriate interviewing techniques
26
Language Learning (part 1)
A Sensitive Time
Brain maturation, myelination, scaffolding, and social
interaction make early childhood ideal for learning language.
Early childhood is a sensitive period (or best time) to master
vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
Language is pivotal to every kind of cognition in early
childhood.
27
Vocabulary explosion
The average child knows about 500 words at age 2 and more
than 10,000 at age 6.
Verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and many nouns are
mastered.
Fast-mapping
Speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn

new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories
according to their perceived meaning
Picture books offer opportunities to advance vocabulary though
scaffolding and fast-mapping.
28
Logical extension
Closely related to fast-mapping
Occurs when children use a word to describe other objects in
the same category
Bilingual children
Often code-switch in the middle of a sentence
Realize which language to use by age 5
Acquiring grammar
Grammar of a language
Structures, techniques, and rules that communicate meaning
Overregularization
Application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur
Makes language seem more “regular" than it actually is
Pragmatic
Practical use of language, adjusting communication to audience
and context (words, tone, grammatical form)
Difficult aspect of language
Evident by age 4
By age 4, many children overregularize the final s for
pluralization, talking about foots, tooths, and mouses. This i s

actually evidence of increasing knowledge:
Many children first say words correctly (feet, teeth, mice),
repeating what they have heard.
Later, when they grasp the grammar and try to apply it, they
overregularize, assuming that all constructions follow the
regular path
30
Learning two languages
Early childhood is the best time to learn a new language.
For children to develop two languages, they must speak as well
as hear two languages
Mastering two language before age 6 seems to contribute to
lifelong neurological benefits.
If English fluency is lacking, language-minority children often
have lower school achievement, diminished self-esteem, and
inadequate employment.
31
Language losses and gains
Language shifts
Becoming more fluent in the school language than in their home
language
Balanced bilingual
Being fluent in two languages, not favoring one over the other
Occurs if adults talk frequently, listen carefully, and value both
languages

32
Five effective strategies for children of all income levels,
languages, and ethnicities
Code-focused teaching
Book-reading
Parent education
Language enhancement
Preschool programs
1. Code-focused teaching. In order for children to read, they
must “break the code” from spoken to written words. It helps if
they learn the letters and sounds of the alphabet (e.g., “A,
alligators all around” or, conventionally, “B is for baby”).
2. Book-reading. Vocabulary as well as familiarity with pages
and print will increase when adults read to children, allowing
questions and conversation.
3. Parent education. When teachers and other professionals
teach parents how to stimulate cognition (as in book-reading),
children become better readers. Adults need to use words to
expand vocabulary. Unfortunately, too often adults use words
primarily to control (“don’t touch” or “stop that”), not to teach.
4. Language enhancement. Within each child’s zone of proximal
development, mentors can expand vocabulary and grammar
based on the child’s knowledge and experience.
5. Preschool programs. Children learn from teachers, songs,
excursions, and other children. (We discuss variations of early
education next, but every study finds that preschools advance
language acquisition, especially if the home language is not the
majority language.)
33
Early-Childhood Education (part 1)

Research on costs and benefits
Program research focused on children from low- SES families;
all provided intense education from well- trained teachers.
Perry (High/Scope) program
Abecedarian
Child-Parent Centers
Research on costs and benefits
Conclusion
Early education, when done well, results in benefits that become
most apparent when children are in the third grade or later
International early-childhood education
Currently, in most developed nations, over 90 percent of 3- to
5-year- olds attend school paid for by the government.
In nations where major government funding is scarce,
preschools that are privately or religiously funded proliferate.
Norway heavily subsidizes preschool education for every child
from age 1.
36
Home versus preschool
Quality matters.
If the home educational environment is poor, a good preschool
program aids health, cognition, and social skills.
If a family provides extensive learning opportunities and

encouragement, the quality of the preschool is less crucial.
Child-centered or developmental programs
Emphasize children's natural inclination to learn through play
rather than by following adult directions.
Encourage self-paced exploration and artistic expression.
Show the influence of Vygotsky (children learn through play
with other children with adult guidance) and Piaget (emphasis
children will discover new ideas if given a chance).
38
Examples of child-centered programs
Montessori schools emphasize individual pride and
accomplishment, presenting literacy-related tasks.
Reggio Emilia approach is a famous Italian early-childhood
education program that encourages each child's creativity in a
carefully designed setting.
Waldorf programs emphasize creativity, social understanding,
and emotional growth; prize imagination.
39
Teacher-directed programs
Stress academic subjects taught by a teacher to an entire class.

Help children learn letters, numbers, shapes, and colors, as well
as how to listen to the teacher and sit quietly.
Are often influenced by behaviorism.
Are much less expensive, since the child/adult ratio can be
higher.
40
Project Head Start
Federally funded in early 1960s to provide preschool education
for 4-year-olds from low-SES families or with disabilities
Current goals shifted from lifting families out of poverty to
promoting literacy, providing dental care and immunizations,
and teaching standard English
Project Head Start
New 2016 requirements include 6 hour days and 180 days yearly
with priorities for children who are homeless, have special
needs, or are learning English.
Historical data suggest most Head Start children advanced in
language and social skills, but non-Head Start children caught
up in elementary school
Head Start children maintained superiority in vocabulary.
Opposing Perspectives: Comparing Child-Centered and Teacher-

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