Chapter 2 What Do Sociologists Do? This Chapter Will Help You: Understand the difference between common sense and sociological research Outline the major perspectives in sociology Identify the difference between qualitative and quantitative research Identify the various types of research methods that sociologists use Understand the importance of ethics in social science research What is Common Sense? Knowledge we get from our lived experience May be accurate, but is not always reliable Things that are commonly known are not necessarily factual Fake News Have you seen this meme? It was circulated widely on social media as “factual” In reality, research shows that this information is completely inaccurate Major Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology What is a Theory? A set of propositions intended to explain social phenomena May be used to explain or predict a phenomenon Theories can help us understand the relationships between variables Major Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism Functionalism focuses on social stability Functionalists view society as a set of interconnected parts This is similar to how the human body works Social institutions persist because they help society to survive Functionalism, cont’d – Talcott Parsons Society tends toward balance or equilibrium As one part of society changes, other parts must adjust to maintain social stability Functionalism, cont’d – Robert Merton Manifest Functions The intended outcomes generated by a social institution Latent Functions The unintended or less visible outcomes of a social institution Dysfunctions A system that is not functioning properly is dysfunctional Functionalism: Emile Durkheim Studied how rapid social change affects social stability As societies grow more complex, people have fewer commonalities Less social solidarity This may result in anomie: A feeling of normlessness Major Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory Conflict theorists focus on the importance of conflict and change They study inequality and exploitation They see social life as a continuing struggle for fairness, security, and respect Conflict Theories, cont’d – Karl Marx Marx focuses on capitalism’s mode of production: A way of producing the material things we need to survive The capitalist mode of production produces a particular social order: The bourgeoisie own the means of industrial production The proletariat work for a wage and produce profits for the bourgeoisie Conflict Theory cont’d – Karl Marx Marx believed that the capitalist social order exploited the proletariat Class consciousness: Marx believed that if the workers recognized their common exploitation and their common power, they could overthrow the business owners Major Theoretical Perspectives: Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic interactionism studies people’s everyday lives closely Interactionists focus on the meanings, definitions and interpretations that individuals share How certain behaviours ...

1. Chapter 2
What Do Sociologists Do?
This Chapter Will Help You:
Understand the difference between common sense and
sociological research
Outline the major perspectives in sociology
Identify the difference between qualitative and quantitative
research
Identify the various types of research methods that sociologists
use
Understand the importance of ethics in social science research
What is Common Sense?
Knowledge we get from our lived experience
May be accurate, but is not always reliable
Things that are commonly known are not necessarily factual
Fake News
Have you seen this meme?
It was circulated widely on social media as “factual”
In reality, research shows that this information is completely
inaccurate

2. Major Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
What is a Theory?
A set of propositions intended to explain social phenomena
May be used to explain or predict a phenomenon
Theories can help us understand the relationships between
variables
Major Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism
Functionalism focuses on social stability
Functionalists view society as a set of interconnected parts
This is similar to how the human body works
Social institutions persist because they help society to survive
Functionalism, cont’d – Talcott Parsons
Society tends toward balance or equilibrium
As one part of society changes, other parts must adjust to
maintain social stability
Functionalism, cont’d – Robert Merton
Manifest Functions
The intended outcomes generated by a social institution
Latent Functions
The unintended or less visible outcomes of a social institution
Dysfunctions

3. A system that is not functioning properly is dysfunctional
Functionalism: Emile Durkheim
Studied how rapid social change affects social stability
As societies grow more complex, people have fewer
commonalities
Less social solidarity
This may result in anomie:
A feeling of normlessness
Major Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory
Conflict theorists focus on the importance of conflict and
change
They study inequality and exploitation
They see social life as a continuing struggle for fairness,
security, and respect
Conflict Theories, cont’d – Karl Marx
Marx focuses on capitalism’s mode of production:
A way of producing the material things we need to survive
The capitalist mode of production produces a particular social
order:
The bourgeoisie own the means of industrial production
The proletariat work for a wage and produce profits for the
bourgeoisie

4. Conflict Theory cont’d – Karl Marx
Marx believed that the capitalist social order exploited the
proletariat
Class consciousness:
Marx believed that if the workers recognized their common
exploitation and their common power, they could overthrow the
business owners
Major Theoretical Perspectives:
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism studies people’s everyday lives closely
Interactionists focus on the meanings, definitions and
interpretations that individuals share
How certain behaviours come to be defined in certain ways
How we learn to engage in everyday activities
Symbolic Interactionism cont’d – Erving Goffman
Front Stage Interactions
Situations in which you perform in the way that people expect
Display the parts of ourselves that we want others to see
Back Stage Interactions
Situations in which you behave in a more relaxed or “real”
fashion
Symbolic Interactionism cont’d –
George Herbert Mead
Mead argued that we develop our sense of self through social
interaction
That is, by observing how others treat us and react to us

5. Significant Others
Family members and close friends
Play a major role in shaping our sense of self
Symbolic Interactionism, cont’d –
George Herbert Mead
Mead argued that our self has two parts:
The I
Our unsocialized self
Impulsive, creative, spontaneous
The Me
Socialized by significant others
Reflects the values and attitudes of society learned through
interaction
Diversity and Marginalized Voices in Social Theory
The founders of the major theoretical perspectives are not from
diverse backgrounds
All are white, male, and European or American
White men held a great deal of social power in the 19th and
early 20th centuries
However, people of diverse backgrounds contributed to social
theory, but were not acknowledged at the time
Diversity and Marginalized Voices in Social Theory - W.E.B.
DuBois
Key founder of American sociology
Examined racism as a structural constraint
Double Consciousness:
Seeing oneself through the eyes of a racist society

6. Tension between how you see yourself and how other (racist)
people see you
Feminism
All forms of feminism focus on gender inequality
Patriarchy
A cultural system that promotes the idea that men should play
the dominant roles in society
An example is the father of the bride “giving” her to the groom
Historically women were the property of men
First Wave Feminism
1880 – 1920
Resulted in (some) women gaining the right to vote
Feminism, cont’d
Second Wave Feminism
Demanded wider social equality for women
Treated women as a group with common experiences
Dorothy Smith
Introduced standpoint:
A view of the world from a marginalized status
Feminism cont’d
Third Wave Feminism
Focus on intersectionality:
A woman’s experience of oppression is unique to her particular
circumstances
bell hooks
Both race and gender impact women’s lives and oppressi ons

7. Sociological Research Methods
The Research Cycle: Research Idea
What is the topic that you are interested in?
Researchers may choose topics based on personal interest and/or
because the issue has become a social problem
Once a topic is chosen the researcher must define the problem
to be studied
The Research Cycle: Literature Review
This refers to reviewing the previous material written about the
problem
Helps to pinpoint the area for study
The material reviewed should be scholarly research
The Research Cycle: Formulating an Hypothesis
Hypothesis
A proposition about the relationship between variables
Will be tested in the research
Variables
Traits that vary over time
Dependent variable
The variable that we are trying to predict and explain
Independent variable
The variable that we think will change or influence the

8. dependent variable
The Research Cycle: Research Design
Quantitative Research
Numerical data
Larger samples
Trends over time
Qualitative Research
Focuses on individual experiences
Smaller samples
Individuals’ understandings of their experiences
Mixed methods
Combines the two types of research simultaneously
The Research Cycle: Collecting Data: Experiments
Controlled laboratory conditions
Sociologists rarely use this method because it is very artificial
Sociological researchers refer unobtrusive measures:
Measures unaffected by respondent participation
Collecting Data, cont’d: Content Analysis
Unobtrusive measure
The analysis of the content of public communications
i.e. books, websites, speeches, popular songs, etc.
Collecting Data, cont’d: Participant Observation

9. The sociologist participates in the social unit being studied
Gain firsthand insight into the activities and attitudes of the
group members
Involves certain risks:
The researcher may take on the world view of the group they
study and lose objectivity
The researcher may change the processes they observe an
participate in
Collecting Data, cont’d: Surveys
Surveys can reach a lot of people in a relatively short period of
time
The researcher must first determine the population of interest
Population:
The set of all the people who share the characteristics of
interest to the researcher
Surveys, cont’d: Samples
It would be expensive and time-consuming to collect data from
every member of a population
Researchers use a subset of the population – a sample - to
collect data
Systematic random samples are the most accurate
Convenience samples study people who are easily accessible to
the researcher
Snowball samples ask participants to suggest the names of other
people to study
Collecting Data, cont’d: Questionnaires
A questionnaire provides a set of questions to respondents

10. (through mail or online)
Respondents record their own answers
Response Bias:
Respondents may answer untruthfully or misleadingly
They may provide socially desirable answers
Questions may be constructed to produce certain answers and
not others
Collecting Data, cont’d: Interviews
In interviews, the researcher asks respondents questions face-to-
face or over the phone and records the answers
Structured interviews:
Each respondent is asked a standard set of questions in the same
order
Unstructured interviews:
Questions are open-ended and the respondent answers freely
The interviewer may change the order of the questions or ask
other questions based on respondent’s answer
Collecting Data, cont’d: Secondary Data Analysis
Secondary data analysis involves the researcher analyzing and
interpreting data gathered by other researchers or the
government
For example, researchers may analyze data collected by the
Canadian Census
The Research Cycle: Data Analysis
When researchers analyze data, they are concerned with two
major issues:

11. Validity refers to accurately measuring a concept
Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure produces
consistent responses
The Research Cycle: Disseminating Knowledge
Once research is collected and the data is analyzed, social
scientists must share the knowledge with the public
This can be done by:
Publishing books or academic articles
Presenting at public forums or conferences
Community-based research may be shared directly with the
community under study
Research Ethics
Ethical guidelines for research are provided to researchers
through professional bodies and research ethics boards
Researchers must share their results openly and truthfully
Researchers must not falsify results
Researchers must not present others’ work as their own
Researchers must also minimize any harm to participants
This includes protecting participants’ identities and allowing
them to withdraw from the research at any time
Research Ethics, cont’d
Based on the information provided in the text, can you identify
the ethical issues that arise in the following studies?
Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment
Milgram’s Obedience Study
Humphrey’s Tea Room Trade study

12. Summary
This chapter introduced:
The difference between common sense and social research
The central aspects of the four major theoretical perspectives in
sociology
The difference between qualitative and quantitative research
The 7 steps to most research projects
The importance of ethics in the research process