1) The passage discusses genetics, evolution, and behavior from a biological perspective. It explains how genes govern cellular functions and are passed down through generations, resulting in inherited traits and behaviors.
2) Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is described, where genetic variations that provide reproductive advantages are more likely to be passed on, shaping organisms over generations. Behaviors as well as physical traits have evolved in this manner.
3) Evidence for evolution includes the fossil record, molecular analysis of genomes across species showing common ancestry, and examples of observed natural selection in modern organisms. Intelligence has components of both genetic inheritance and environmental influences.
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(left) Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers, (middle) Visuals
Unlimited/Corbis, (right) University of Edinburgh,Wellcome
Image
2.1 Cell types (A) Red blood cells contain large amounts of a
protein called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin picks up oxygen when
red blood cells pass through the lungs and then drops off the
oxygen when these cells pass through the body’s other tissues.
(B) Goblet cells, found in the lining of the small intestine,
manufacture granules of a protein called mucigen. When a
goblet cell releases mucigen granules into the intestine, they
combine with water to make mucin, a component of the mucus
that lubricates the intestine. (C) Rod cells, which serve as light
detectors in the eye, contain a protein called rhodopsin that
absorbs light.
Genetics and DNAThe nucleus of each biological cell contains
chromosomes, which each contain a single molecule of
DNA.Within this molecule, genes govern the cell’s functioning
by providing detailed instructions for making proteins.
Biological influences on behavior are governed by genes: what
are genes and how does genetic inheritance operate? Genes are
sections of DNA molecules, stored within chromosomes in
every cell, that describe the structure and expression of specific
proteins.
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(left) Jim Zuckerman/Corbis; (right) Biophoto Associates
2.2 The cell’s control center Cells contain nuclei, which contain
chromosomes, which contain DNA.
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(photo) Science Photo Library
2.3 A DNA molecule The production of proteins is governed by
the sequence of subunits on the DNA molecule. The sequence
(for example, CAGGTC or TCCA) determines the structure of
the protein that will be produced as well as when, where, and in
what amount the protein will be made.
GenomeHumans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and roughly
25,000 protein-coding genes. These are collectively called the
person’s genome.
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4. Leonard Lessin, Photo Researchers, Inc.
2.4 Human chromosomes The human genome consists of 23
pairs of chromosomes; these together contain roughly 25,000
genes. One pair of chromosomes (the so-called sex
chromosomes) is either XX or XY; this pair determines whether
the person is genetically female or male. The other 22 pairs are
called autosomes.
Gene ExpressionIn each cell, some genes are expressed at any
point in time and others are not.Gene expression is controlled
by the biochemical environment inside the cell, which is
influenced by the organism’s:overall environment.
experience.behavior.
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Gene ExpressionAn organism’s genome therefore specifies only
its genotype.The overt traits and behaviors of the organism
define its phenotype.the product of the genotype and
experience, which are in continual interaction
- How genes are transcribed into actual proteins, or expressed,
in any given cell or individual is controlled by biology and
timing, but also by experience and the social and physical
environment.
- Thus, an organism’s specific sequence of genes (its genotype)
plays only an indirect role in determining its observable
features and behaviors (its phenotype).
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2.5 Parents’ chromosome pairs combine to create a child’s Cells
in the human body generally contain 46 chromosomes— that is,
23 pairs. When females produce an egg, however, the egg
contains just 23 chromosomes—one from each of the mother’s
pairs. The same is true when males produce sperm cells—they
contain just one chromosome from each of the father’s pairs.
When egg and sperm combine, the baby ends up with the
appropriate number of chromosomes.
Interactions among GenesMost characteristics are influenced by
the action of many genes.Each gene is paired with another
gene.The pairs are located at corresponding positions on pairs
of chromosomes.
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Bettmann/Corbis
2.6 Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) Our modern understanding of
genetics grows out of Mendel’s pioneering work 150 years ago.
6. Dominant vs. RecessiveThe genes may or may not be the same
allele. If they are different:one gene may be dominant and the
other recessive,or the genes may be codominant,or one may be
incompletely dominant.
- Genes are inherited from an organism’s parents, and the laws
of Mendelian inheritance control how traits shaped by single
genes are passed along; for example, a person who inherits a
gene for dimples (a dominant trait) from a single parent will
have dimples, while a person needs two copies of the gene for
PKU (a recessive trait) to have the disorder.
- Most genetic variation, though, is not so simple. Even single-
gene variations can be incompletely Mendelian (as in the
serotonin transporter). More importantly, the vast majority of
an organism’s traits, from physical variations like height to
specific disorders like schizophrenia, are influenced by many
genes. These traits are still influenced by biology, but in much
more complicated ways.
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2.7 Inheritance of dimples Dimples are one of the few traits
largely determined by variation in just one gene. If someone
inherits the allele that favors dimples from both parents
(meaning the person’s genotype is DD), the person will almost
certainly have dimples. If someone inherits this allele from
neither parent (genotype dd), then dimples are unlikely. What i f
the person is heterozygous? The allele favoring dimples is
7. dominant, and so the genotype Dd usually leads to dimples.
Darwin and EvolutionCharles Darwin hypothesized that all
modern organisms:are descended from a small set of shared
ancestors.have emerged over time through the process of
evolution.An enormous amount of evidence has confirmed these
proposals.
If most traits and behaviors are influenced by patterns of many
genes, how have these complicated patterns arisen and been
maintained over generations? This is a question about why
biological forces would have shaped a particular behavior —the
“ultimate causes” of behavior. Darwin addressed these questions
with the principles of evolution: that all life had a common
origin, and that the process of natural selection had shaped
variations among organisms in both their physical traits and
their behavior.
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Wikimedia Commons
2.8 Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Darwin’s theory of evolution
by natural selection has dramatically changed the way scienti sts
think about life on Earth. Here Darwin is shown at about 30
years old, in a watercolor by George Richmond.
Darwin and EvolutionThe key mechanism is natural selection.If
8. individuals with certain traits are more likely to survive and
reproduce, their genes will be better represented in the next
generation. And if the genes gave rise to the advantageous
traits, those traits will be more common in the next generation.
Natural selection occurs when a heritable variation in a species
leads to reproductive advantage (but not necessarily survival) in
a specific environment, and thus becomes “favored,” or more
common, as that variation is passed on to offspring. This
process, repeated over generations, results in organisms that are
increasingly adapted to their specific environment (but not
necessarily, as the text notes, “better” in any meaningful way).
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The New Yorker Collection, 2006, Robert
Leighton/cartoonbank.com
2.9 Naturalistic fallacy
Naturalistic FallacyIt is important to avoid the naturalistic
fallacy, however—it does not follow that evolution somehow
improves organisms or that anything natural is good.
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9. Genes and EvolutionDarwin’s three principles: There must be
variation among individuals within a population.Certain of the
variants must survive and reproduce at higher rates than others.
The traits associated with this advantage must be passed from
parents to offspring.
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Genes and Evolution
Both the variation and the transmission of traits depend on the
organism’s genome.The emphasis is on the survival of
genes!This explains behaviors in which organisms endanger
their own survival to protect their offspring or relatives. What
matters is the survival of genes, NOT the survival of
individuals.
Although Darwin knew nothing of genes, we now know that
genes are the mechanism by which favored variations are passed
down to offspring. Sexual reproduction (and occasionally
mutations) helps introduce variations into the population, which
can be selected for over time.
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Biosphoto/Cordier Sylvain/Peter Arnold
2.10 The broken-wing display When a predator approaches the
10. plover’s nest, the mother flies a short distance away and drags a
wing, as if she were injured. The predator is likely to turn away
from the nest and pursue the (apparently vulnerable) mother.
This behavior is easily understood in Darwinian terms—but
only if we emphasize the survival of the mother’s genes, and
not the mother herself.
Evidence for EvolutionThe evidence for modern evolutionary
theory comes from many sources, including:the fossil record.
examination of the resemblance between genomes of various
organisms.
- Modern biological research, from the fossil record to
molecular investigations of the genome, has produced
overwhelming evidence for evolution; understanding how
closely all life is related and how much of the genome is shared
between species provides the basis for learning about human
psychology by studying animals.
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2.11 Public acceptance of evolution Despite overwhelming
evidence for the theory of evolution, many Americans remain
skeptical about it. In a 2005 survey (see figure), only in Turkey
did a larger group of people express reservations about the
statement that “human beings, as we know them, developed
from earlier species of animals.” This statement—almost
universally endorsed by scientists—was much more favorably
received in most European countries and in Japan.
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Wikimedia Commons
2.12 Fossilized remains supporting evolution The four-winged
dinosaur (Microraptor gui) has flight feathers on its arms and its
legs. This is compelling evidence that this dinosaur is one of the
ancient ancestors of modern birds.
Evidence for Evolution
We can also document the unfolding of evolution in some
modern organisms.
The unity of life
Shared ancestry for many organisms is evident.
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(photos) scienceblogs.com
2.13 Natural selection in the modern world In the 1950s, the
murky waters of Lake Washington hid the stickleback from the
view of predators. Now that the water has cleared, trout are
more easily finding and eating the sticklebacks. The result has
12. been a striking increase in the number of sticklebacks with bony
plates on their sides—plates that serve as armor, protecting the
fish from the trout.
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Anthony Chan, Yerkes National Primate Research Center
2.14 The unity of life These baby monkeys make green
fluorescent protein because they have been implanted with
genetic instructions borrowed from a jellyfish. This result is an
extraordinary confirmation that the biochemical mechanisms
inside these animals’ cells are quite similar.
Genetics and BehaviorEvolution by natural selection has shaped
behaviors just as much as physical traits. Natural selection
favored behavioral flexibility. Organisms have evolved
mechanisms so they can: alter their responses.learn new skills.
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Heinrich Van Denberg/ WWI/Still/Peter Arnold
2.15 Evolutionary influence on behavior In some cases,
13. evolution has guided organisms toward specific, well-defined
behaviors—like the weaver bird’s specific style of nest
building.
Say Cheese!The behavior of smiling seems to be species general
for humans, but is not species specific.Smiling is also evident in
individuals blind since birth.It does not depend on a history of
learning.
Smiling is a universal human behavior (as shown by evidence
from babies, from blind athletes, and from widely separated
cultures). It is also shared across species; many closely related
primates smile in specific social situations.
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What Kind of Smile Is That?There are at least two types of
smiles.One type is expressive of an individual’s inner
state.produced even if no other people are around The other
type is more social. functions as a greeting or a means of
defusing tense situations
Primates, including humans, typically show at least two kinds of
smiles, one in response to pleasant stimuli and a distinctly
different one used as a social signal. Analyzing the role smiling
plays in animal behavior can thus help us understand how it is
used in human interactions today and how the behavior was
promoted and preserved by natural selection across species.
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Andersen Ross/cultura/Corbis
2.16 The expressive smile The expressive smile involves both
changes in mouth shape and a shift in the muscles surrounding
the eyes. The shift creates the pattern known as “crows’ feet,”
radiating outward from the eyes.
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Corbis
2.17 The polite smile This form of smile involves lips drawn
back, revealing the teeth—but with the teeth plainly closed.
This smile may be a gesture of submission or a means of
avoiding conflict.
What Kind of Smile Is That?These points provide powerful
indications that smiles have ancient roots.selected by evolution
as a means of communication, allowing others to read our inner
states and intentions
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Genetics and IntelligenceAn individual’s level of intelligence is
influenced by genetic factors. Identical twins are a good
15. example: their levels of intelligence are similar, even if they
grew up separately.
People differ in their abilities to learn, solve problems, and
adapt; what psychologists call intelligence is a general version
of this capacity. Measurements of intelligence have a large
environmental component, but they interact with a significant
genetic component to intelligence, as suggested by twin studies
and studies of adopted children.
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2.18 Monozygotic and dizygotic twins Sometimes a woman
releases two eggs in the same month and both are fertilized. The
result is dizygotic twins—conceived at the same time, born on
the same day, but with only 50 percent overlap in their
genotypes (the same overlap as for ordinary siblings).
Sometimes a woman releases a single egg that is fertilized and
then splits into two. This sequence results in monozygotic
(identical) twins with 100 percent overlap in their genotypes.
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2.19 Genetic relatedness and intelligence Monozygotic twins
tend to resemble each other in intelligence, whether the twins
are raised together or not; dizygotic twins show less
resemblance, although they resemble each other more than do
randomly selected individuals.
16. Heritability RatioIntelligence is also influenced by
environmental factors.heritability = genetic variance ∕ total
phenotypic varianceThe heritability ratio is a summary of the
effect of genetic differences within a given population and
environment.
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Heritability RatioThe value of the heritability ratio depends on
the group being examined.In groups with lower socioeconomic
status (SES), the heritability may be zero. Heritability also
increases with a person’s age. This may be because people
choose environments that amplify their genetic potential.
Heritability estimates measure how much of the variation in a
trait is due to genetics; for intelligence, estimates of heritability
are often around 60 percent, but they vary significantly
depending on the group that is studied (for example, middle-
class vs. low socioeconomic status). One possibility is that
genetic inheritance provides a potential for developing
intelligence, but this potential must be nurtured in the right
environment to be achieved. The evolutionary perspective on
intelligence suggests that intelligence has a genetic component
because natural selection favored the ability to adapt to
different environments.
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18. Evolution of MatingMost mammals are polygynous; this is
easily understood in evolutionary terms. To maximize their
reproductive success, males should mate with as many females
as possible.females mate just a few times during their lives but
try to ensure the well-being of each of their progeny.
In mammals, mothers are far more critical to an infant’s
physical needs after conception (in pregnancy and following
birth) than fathers are, which results in different selection
pressures between the sexes. Males should be under pressure to
mate with as many females as possible to increase reproductive
success, while females should be under pressure to ensure the
success of each child. This argument explains mating patterns in
many mammalian species; evolutionary psychology argues it
also can address key differences in how human men and women
approach mating.
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WILDLIFE/Peter Arnold Inc.
2.22 The cost of reproduction For mammalian females,
reproduction has serious costs. A doe must devote an entire
breeding season to carrying the young and then nursing them or
the offspring will not survive.
Human Mating HabitsThis logic helps explain why human males
express a desire for multiple partners, and why it’s the female,
in most species, who makes the choice about mating. By the
same logic Natural selection explains why males take the major
19. role in courtship.
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Biosphoto/Vernay Pierre/Peter Arnold, Inc.
2.23 Males, females, and courtship In most species, it’s the
female who decides whether to mate, which causes the male to
do some self-promotion.
Mars versus VenusMen seem to care more about appearance.
Women seem to put greater weight on social status. Natural
selection likely favored these tendencies.appearance = health
and fertilitystatus = resources needed to raise young
Buss’ cross-cultural studies have identified widespread patterns
in how women and men choose mates. Among humans, females
appear to seek mates who demonstrate the ability to commit
resources to raising offspring; thus, women are attracted to
mates with wealth or high status. By contrast, men are under
pressure to mate with partners who demonstrate youth and
health (and thus maximize their future reproductive success);
men thus place more emphasis on physical attractiveness and
youth. However, virtually all men and women desire a long-
term, mutually exclusive sexual relationship, which suggests
that something more than the pressures for maximal
reproductive success are at play.
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Stuart Freedman/Panos Pictures
2.24 Male preference for younger women In a wide range of
cultures, men prefer partners who are younger than they are;
women prefer high-status, slightly older men.
Evolution and InfidelityAn evolutionary perspective also leads
to the expectation that men will be more distressed by sexual
infidelity in their partners than by emotional infidelity, which
indeed is reported.Women should show the reverse pattern, as is
also reported.
Other pressures can account for how men and women vary in
concerns about jealousy and paternity; for example, unlike men,
women can be sure their children are their genetic relations.
Differences that men and women report in jealousy—that men
are more threatened by sexual infidelity and women by
emotional infidelity—are consistent with an evolutionary
perspective based on these different pressures; so are data that
men tend to prefer children that look like them. These data and
their interpretation, though, have been the subject of much
debate, highlighting the difficulty of examining human behavior
from a purely biological and evolutionary perspective.
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Michael Newman/ Photo Edit
2.25 DNA testing Modern biotechnology now makes it easy to
compare the DNA of two individuals—and thus to establish the
identity of an infant's father.
Behavior: It’s ComplicatedBiology versus environmentEither -or
arguments are increasingly viewed as irrelevant as the constant
interaction between the two has become clearer.Does evolution
produce “good” traits?Natural selection can favor traits that
used to be valuable but no longer are.example: storing body fat
or responding to threat
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Concept Quiz
Most of an organism’s traits are not controlled by a single gene,
but rather are influenced by a large number of gene pairs. This
pattern is called:
gene dominance.
genotype.
polygenic inheritance.
natural selection.
Answer: C
Type: vocabulary
22. *
Concept Quiz
An evolutionary perspective on jealousy predicts that males will
be more upset by their partner’s _________________ than
females will be.
imagined infidelity
emotional infidelity
sexual infidelity
serial infidelity
Answer: C
Type: conceptual
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Video Clips
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Scared Slow (1:32)
After a car accident or other frightening experience, many
people report feeling like the event happened in slow motion.
One neuroscientist set out to test whether our brains really
23. perceive things slowed down in response to fear. This
ScienCentral News story shows why he had to scare people in
order to do the experiment.
Featuring: David Eagleman, Baylor College of Medicine
Copyright ScienCentral, Inc.
Red Sways Men (1:30)
The way to a man’s heart on Valentine’s Day? Wear red. This
ScienCentral News video explains that there is scientific
evidence for the attractive power of red.
Featuring: Daniela Niesta, University of Rochester
Copyright ScienCentral, Inc.
Threat and Politics: Are Political Views Rooted in Biology?
(1:36)
If you’re ever been in an argument with someone who had
different political views, chances are neither of you won. Maybe
it’s not just stubbornness. New research has found that people
with strong opposing political views might also have very
different physical responses to threat.
Featuring: John Hibbing, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
24. Copyright ScienCentral, Inc.
Baby Scent and Dads (1:32)
Even the toughest dads can be tender and nurturing when it
comes to their children. Now researchers studying monkeys
have found that’s not just an attitude, it’s a physical response to
the mere scent of their infant. This ScienCentral News video
explains.
Featuring: Toni Ziegler, Wisconsin National Primate Research
Center
Copyright ScienCentral, Inc.
This concludes the presentation slides for Chapter 2
For more learning resources, visit the StudySpace at
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/psych/psychology8/
Page 1 of 2
Evaluation of Strengths
Building Family Strengths (44023)
Kent State University – Salem | Dr. Steven Toepfer
View the film Billy Elliot and evaluate the Elliot family
25. according to the instructions below. Answer every question
and its subcomponents. Always define terms and give
examples from the film whenever possible. Use the
worksheets provided on Blackboard.
Format: The Evaluations of Strengths project is not a
traditional paper. It is an informal report. The Elliot family is
the fictional client. There is
not perfect way to format this assignment, but it must be
professional, organized, and
easy to understand for a reader that may not be familiar with the
jargon or the Double
ABC-X Model.
PART 1: General Evaluation
Define all terms before applying them to the Elliot family.
These concepts are drawn
directly from class material over the semester. Feel free to bold -
face them in your work.
● The Elliot Family: Summarize the Elliot family’s strengths
(and weaknesses) in terms of their
relationships. From chap 6 (Flourishing) include an example of
appetite/aversion and
expectancy violation.
● The Elephant & Rider: Detail the relationship between Mr.
Elliot’s (Billy’s father) elephant
and rider.
● Defense Mechanisms: Discuss two defense mechanism used
26. by members of the Elliot
family. Billy must be used as one of the family members.
● Psychological Turning Point: What was the mechanism of
change? To answer this question
you must describe the circumstance before and after the idea of
turning points as reviewed
in Flourishing.
● Vital Engagement & Goals: Define vital engagement and
explain the role of Billy’s vital
engagement. What is it and how did it help him establish goals.
What were those goals?
● Flow: What activity completely absorbed Billy and how does
he describe that experience?
Page 2 of 2
PART 2: Double ABC-X Model Application
Everything you need to know about the Double ABC-X Model is
in the corresponding lecture.
When covering the stressors (aA) include the categories of
27. assessment (e.g., Locus of the
problem, tolerance, etc.) as well as the (D) and (F) modifiers
when making your assessment.
● Use the Double ABC-X model to evaluate the Elliot family.
Use the forms that have been
provided to organize and conduct the evaluation. Do not turn
these forms in with the
assignment. They are provided to help you organize your
analysis.
● In bulleted or bolded format list the aA, bB, cC, and xX
dimensions of the ABC-X model
which apply to the Elliot family. Elaborate with 1-3 sentences if
needed. In some cases you
will need to describe your rational for the inclusion of an
observation.
● Summarize the overall ABC-X findings to using the language
of the model to conclude this
portion of the assignment. In other words, discuss the change in
perspective and outcomes
that you observe.
Format Criteria
● Title page (Name, Title of the assignment, course name,
instructor name).
28. ● 4-8 pages, Typed, Double spaced, Page numbers, Stapled,
White bonded paper.
● Must be on time. Late papers will receive a massive deduction
of points.
When complete, upload the Blackboard.
