biology_genetics

1. Genetics
Biology
DR. Ahmed Salhab

2. ‫الجامعي‬ ‫الطالب‬ ‫رقم‬
‫الطالب‬ ‫اسم‬
Students' names and university
numbers

3. DNA-Genes-Chromosomes
DNA, genes and chromosomes work together to make you who
you are. Chromosomes carry DNA in cells. DNA is
responsible for building and maintaining your human
structure. Genes are segments of your DNA, which give you
physical characteristics that make you unique. Together,
your body has a complete instruction manual that tells
your cells how to behave.
DNA, genes and chromosomes work together to make you
who you are. Chromosomes carry DNA in cells. DNA is
responsible for building and maintaining your human
structure. Genes are segments of your DNA, which give
you physical characteristics that make you unique.
Together, your body has a complete instruction manual
that tells your cells how to behave.
What is the relationship and function of
DNA, genes and chromosomes?

4. DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a polymer
composed of two polynucleotide
chains that coil around each other to
form a double helix. The polymer
carries genetic instructions for the
development, functioning, growth and
reproduction of all known organisms
and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic
acid are nucleic acids

5. chromosome
A chromosome is a long DNA molecule
with part or all of the genetic material
of an organism. In most
chromosomes the very long thin DNA
fibers are coated with packaging
proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most
important of these proteins are the
histones.

6. Genes
In biology, the word gene can have
several different meanings. The
Mendelian gene is a basic unit of
heredity and the molecular gene is a
sequence of nucleotides in DNA that
is transcribed to produce a functional
RNA. There are two types of
molecular genes: protein-coding
genes and noncoding genes.
Gene structure
Gene structure is the
organisation of specialised
sequence elements within a gene.
Genes contain most of the
information necessary for living
cells to survive and reproduce. In
most organisms, genes are made
of DNA, where the particular DNA
sequence determines the
function of the gene.

7. Genes And Genetic Traits
A trait, as related to genetics, is a specific
characteristic of an individual. Traits can be
determined by genes, environmental factors or
by a combination of both. Traits can be
qualitative (such as eye color) or quantitative
(such as height or blood pressure).
For example, if both of your parents have green
eyes, you might inherit the trait for green eyes
from them. Or if your mom has freckles, you
might have freckles too because you inherited
the trait for freckles. Genes aren't just found in
humans — all animals and plants have genes,
too.

8. The relationship between eye color and
genes
Eye color is determined by variations in a person's
genes. Most of the genes associated with eye color
are involved in the production, transport, or storage
of a pigment called melanin. Eye color is directly
related to the amount of melanin in the front layers
of the iris
Blue eyes
(recessive) trait
Brown eyes
(prevalent) trait
The allele genes come in the form of
brown, blue, or green, with brown being
dominant, followed by green, and blue
being the least dominant or what is called
recessive.

9. The relationship between hair and genes
Genetic factors appear to play a
major role in determining hair
texture—straight, wavy, or curly—
and the thickness of individual
strands of hair.
Curly hair is considered a “dominant” gene trait. Straight
hair is considered “recessive.” To put that in simple
terms, that means that if one parent gives you a curly-
haired gene and the other parent gives you a straight-
haired gene, you'll be born with curly hair.
fuzzy hair
(dominant)
Straight hair
(recessive)
curly hair

10. The relationship between Freckles and genes
These are located in the genes IRF4, BNC2, OCA2 and
MC1R. These four genes are related to melanin
production in some way. The markers that AncestryDNA
looks at affect how these genes work and thus partially
determine whether or not you have freckles. But some
people have freckles and don't have them.
Freckles are associated with a variant of a gene
called MC1R. MC1R alerts the body when
exposed to harmful UV radiation is taking place.
This is a dominant gene, meaning anyone with
at least one copy of the freckle variant from
either parent will have freckles.

11. From Genes to Proteins
Most genes contain the
information needed to make
functional molecules called
proteins. (A few genes produce
regulatory molecules that help the
cell assemble proteins.) The
journey from gene to protein is
complex and tightly controlled
within each cell. It consists of two
major steps: transcription and
translation.

12. Transcription
Transcription, as related to
genomics, is the process of
making an RNA copy of a gene's
DNA sequence. This copy, called
messenger RNA (mRNA), carries
the gene's protein information
encoded in DNA.

13. translation
translation is the process in
which ribosomes in the
cytoplasm or endoplasmic
reticulum synthesize proteins
after the process of transcription
of DNA to RNA in the cell's
nucleus. The entire process is
called gene expression.

14. hemoglobin protein
Hemoglobin, in the normal
adult, is a protein
whose main function is to
transport oxygen from the
lungs to tissues and to
transport carbon dioxide
from tissues to the lung.
The hemoglobin molecule
contains four separate
folded peptide chains, which
form a hydrophobic or water
'repelling' pocket around a
heme group.
Example for proteins

15. Genetic mutations
Genetic mutations are changes to your DNA sequence that happen during cell
division when your cells make copies of themselves. Your DNA tells your body
how to form and function. Genetic mutations could lead to genetic conditions
like cancer, or they could help humans better adapt to their environment over
time.

16. sickle cell disease
Sickle cell disease is a group of
inherited red blood cell disorders
that affect hemoglobin, the protein
that carries oxygen through the
body. The condition affects more
than 100,000 people in the United
States and 20 million people
Examples of genetic mutations

17. Cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic
condition. It's caused by a
faulty gene that affects the
movement of salt and water in
and out of cells. This, along
with recurrent infections, can
result in a build-up of thick,
sticky mucus in the body's
tubes and passageways –
particularly the lungs and
digestive system
Examples of genetic mutations

18. Alzheimer's disease
Alzheimer's disease is the most
common type of dementia. It is a
progressive disease beginning
with mild memory loss and
possibly leading to loss of the
ability to carry on a conversation
and respond to the environment.
Alzheimer's disease involves parts
of the brain that control thought,
memory, and language.
Examples of genetic mutations

19. Genetically modified organism
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic
engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic
engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by
mating and/or natural recombination". A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), from
animals to plants and microorganisms. Genes have been transferred within the same species, across species
(creating transgenic organisms), and even across kingdoms. New genes can be introduced, or endogenous
genes can be enhanced, altered, or knocked out.

20. Corn
Corn is the most commonly grown
crop in the United States, and most
of it is GMO. Most GMO corn is
created to resist insect pests or
tolerate herbicides. Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) corn is a GMO corn
that produces proteins that are toxic
to certain insect pests
examples for plants
modification

21. soybean
A genetically modified soybean
is a soybean (Glycine max) that
has had DNA introduced into it
using genetic engineering
techniques. In 1996, the first
genetically modified soybean
was introduced to the U.S.
by Monsanto.
examples for plants
modification

22. Dolly the sheep
Dolly was the first clone produced
from a cell taken from an adult
mammal. The production of Dolly
showed that genes in the nucleus
of such a mature differentiated
somatic cell are still capable of
reverting to an embryonic
totipotent state, creating a cell
that can then go on to develop
into any part of an animal.
examples for plants
modification

23. Glow-in-the-dark mice
The skin of the genetically-
engineered mice literally lights up
as the animals age or develop
tumours, allowing researchers to
monitor the progression of the
disease in real time, from its
earliest moments up until death.
Scientists have long known that
the p16 gene has a central role in
aging and cancer suppression.
examples for animals
modification