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Stress and coping of Russian students do gender and marital status make a difference.pdf
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Journal of Gender Studies
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjgs20
Stress and coping of Russian students: do gender
and marital status make a difference?
Natalia Ermasova, Evgenia Ermasova & Natalia Rekhter
To cite this article: Natalia Ermasova, Evgenia Ermasova & Natalia Rekhter (2020): Stress and
coping of Russian students: do gender and marital status make a difference?, Journal of Gender
Studies, DOI: 10.1080/09589236.2020.1865139
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2020.1865139
Published online: 23 Dec 2020.
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3. creation of new social relationships; conflicts with partners, family, or friends; money worries; and
concerns about future employment (Beiter et al., 2015; Freire, Ferradás, Núñez, & Valle, 2018; Freire,
Ferradás, Núñez, Valle, & Vallejo, 2019; Freire et al., 2020). Jennings and Greenberg (2009) observed
that while some students can adjust to the profound challenges that college life generates, others
seem to struggle with the mounting stress. Many scholars have analysed different sources of stress
for students, such as a sense of coherence (Darling et al., 2007); high school-to-college transition
(Lafreniere, Ledgerwood, & Docherty, 1997; Lapsky, Rice, & Fitzgerald, 1990; Towbes & Cohen, 1996),
parental attachment (Boss, 1988, 2002; McCarthy, Moller, & Fouladi, 2001), role strain and demands
(Home, 1997), and social appraisal (Lee, Keough, & Sexton, 2002). Various studies have demonstrated
the high frequency of psychological symptoms associated with post-compulsory education (Blanco
et al., 2008; Kim, Saw, & Zane, 2015). The American College Health Association (2018) and Gustems-
Carnicer, Calderón, and Calderón-Garrido (2019) pointed out that stress is one of the most prevalent
psychosocial problems in college. The ways that students cope with stress, particularly with aca
demic and interpersonal stressors, may be a critical factor in determining which type of students
need more support.
Stress can be positive and motivating when it is of short duration. For example, sometimes
a research paper might be done more effectively under the pressure of a deadline. Conditions of
constant scarce resources, such as time, are mid-level stressors but the risk of serious and chronic
stress increases when there are sudden changes or when a person is deprived of the support of
classmates, friends, and family. Stress is formed from a combination of such factors as well as an
inability to relax. According to Nguyen, Ermasova, Demin, and Koumbiadis (2014), ‘concerns about
successful performance and fear of negative consequences resulting from performance failure evoke
powerful negative emotions of anxiety, anger and irritation’ (p.77). Experiencing high rates of stress
can lead to anxiety, depression, and sleep problems (Conn, 2018; Harvey et al., 2017; Janssens &
Stoks, 2018). The results of constant study-related stress can be complex somatic pathology and
reduced adaptive ability. The symptoms of study-related stress are fatigue, weakness in the morning,
frequent headaches, insomnia, interpersonal conflicts or susceptibility to loneliness, anxiety, depres
sion, and sleep problems (Conn, 2018; Harvey et al., 2017; Janssens & Stoks, 2018; Milojevich &
Lukowski, 2016). Stress can bring with it significant harm to a student’s academic performance
(reduced ability to pay attention or to memorize, less dedication to study, and more absences from
class) and to the student’s physical and psychological well-being (substance abuse, insomnia,
anxiety, and physical and emotional exhaustion) (Turner, Bartlett, Andiappan, & Cabot, 2015;
Waqas, Khan, Sharif, Khalid, & Ali, 2015; Webber et al., 2019).
Men and women have been found to differ in how they experience stress and handle stressful
events (Burke & Weir, 1978). Gender differences and social connectedness affect the perceptions of
stress among college students (Baker, 2003; Lee et al., 2002). Lee et al. (2002) found that male
students, who report less social connectedness, make a more negative appraisal of campus life than
female students. Little research to date has focussed on stress and coping in married students in
comparison to single students (Hall, Crutchfield, & Jones, 2019). According to Robotham (2008), ‘thus
far research into student stress has not offered a complete account and explanation of students’
stress experiences’ (p.735). Freire et al. (2020) suggest that there has been a growing interest in
discovering the extent to which students combine different coping strategies. There is a need for
studies that investigates college students’ perceptions of stress and how they cope with stress. This
study examines this in relation to gender and marital status.
Russia has different approaches to teaching in universities and colleges than are found more
widely. In the Russian educational system, faculty are expected to teach facts and students are
expected to select correct answers based upon those facts (Aykac & Sahin, 2018; Spiridonova, 2011).
In Russia, students start their first year of university in cohorts with schedules provided by the Dean.
Russian students take mandatory courses during the first two to three years of their course and it is
only during the last year that students can choose elective courses based on their preferred
specialization (Kochetkov, 2011; Nikolaev & Chugunov, 2012). If Russian students want to change
2 N. ERMASOVA ET AL.
4. majors, they must generally restart their study from the beginning. It is difficult to transfer from one
university, or department, to another in Russia. As a result, the higher education system does not
serve well, either regional need or students’ individual aspirations (Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD), 2010). According to Nikolaev and Chugunov (2012), a recent
survey of 890 employers in Russia found that less than 10% of employees fully corresponded to the
specialization indicated on their diplomas. Research shows that 75% of university graduates in Russia
take work in areas that are unrelated to their study major and most students receive on-the-job
training prior to commencing actual work (Galkin, 2005). The Russian education system should
‘provide opportunities for constant renewing, updating, and adjustment of the skills’ (Nikolaev &
Chugunov, 2012, p. 46). In contrast, in the United States, depending upon the programme’s guide
lines, undergraduate students can transfer credits to other departments or even universities.
Many Russian professors use oral final exams – sometimes 100% of the final grade – (Ledeneva,
2002). In comparison, in the US, there are credits for discussions in class, case analyses, research
papers, and class presentations. A student enrolled in a Russian university has grading entirely
dependent upon their performance, and the recitation the facts, during a final exam (Ledeneva,
2002) and this leads to significant stress during the final weeks of each semester. Only a modest
amount of research has been done on Russian students’ experience of stress and what techniques
college students use to reduce stress levels. There is even less about gender, or marital status, as
a moderator of this.
The overall purpose of this study was to investigate Russian college student stress and how
students report coping with stress based on their gender and marital status. The following research
questions are addressed in this study: (1) What is the relationship between a student’s gender and
perceived stressors? (2) What is the relationship between a student’s marital status and perceived
stressors? (3) What is the relationship between the student’s gender and the reported efficacy/use of
coping methods? (4) What is the relationship between the student’s marital status and the reported
efficacy/use of coping methods? (5) How do gender and marital status moderate students’ percep
tions of the use of psychological support services to alleviate stress?
The paper proceeds as follows: the first section provides a theoretical framework and presents the
research hypotheses. The next section focuses on the data and methodological approach, followed
by a discussion of key research findings. The concluding section includes an outline of the limitations
of the study and makes suggestions for future research as well as reporting on the study’s implica
tions for policy and practice.
Theoretical framework and hypotheses
Stressors in higher education
Stress describes an individual’s perception of their psychological situation, or coping, in relation to
their environment (Ermasova, Cross, & Ermasova, 2020; Fell, Wayne, & Wallace, 1980; Folkman &
Lazarus, 2015; Halder & Mahato, 2013; Golembiewski & Kim, 1991; Grennan, 2000; Haarr & Morash,
1999; Halder & Mahato, 2013; Hassell & Brandl, 2009; Lazarus, 1966, 1990; Lazarus & Launier, 1978;
Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Morash, Kwak, & Haaar, 2006).
Previous studies on stress have generally focussed on stressors relative to the college or work
environment (Cotton, Dollard, & de Jonge, 2002; Freire et al., 2018, 2019, 2020; Hall, 2018; Hancock,
2008, 2009; Kertz-Welzel, 2009; Larson, 2006; Madsen & Hancock, 2002; Webber et al., 2019). Analyses by
Akgun and Ciarrochi (2003) revealed that academic stress can be negatively associated with academic
performance. They found that ‘high academic stress adversely impacted the grades of low resourceful
students but had no effect on high resourceful students’ (p.287). Bean and Metzner (1996) found that
stress from sources outside of college, as well as within the college environment, are linked to the attrition
rates of students. Murphy, Gray, Sterling, Reeves, and DuCette (2009) conducted a survey of 290 medical
and dental students to directly compare perceived stress levels encountered during their education into
JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 3
5. five causal categories: academic performance, faculty relations, patient and clinic responsibilities, perso
nal life issues, and professional identity. Murphy et al. (2009) found that ‘dental students had greater
levels of stress than medical students in three of the five categories. The only category in which medical
students demonstrated greater stress levels than dental students was in professional identity’ (p.328).
Larson (2006) analysed 2,327 surveys of college students by using descriptive, configural frequency, and
qualitative analyses and found that students rated 34% of academic and non-academic life as stressful.
Larson (2006) found that most of stressors were ‘academic tasks (41%), overrepresented compared to
overall frequency’ (p.579).
Gender, marital status and stressors
Researchers who study stress often utilize gender as a key factor in their studies.1
Stress
studies using clinically developed survey instruments consistently show that women
report significantly higher levels of psychological and physical stress than men do
(Derogatis & Savitz, 1999; Hall, 2018; Olpin, 1996). Cahir and Morris (1991) and Olpin
(1996) found, in US studies, that female students had higher stress scores than male
students. Scholars have also found that conflict at work and/or within the family are
among the most consistent stressors for both men and women (He, Zhao, & Archbold,
2002). Doss (2016) found that on average, reported stress appeared to be slightly lower
for male than for female music teachers but did not find differences in perceived stress
for participants in the ‘single’ category compared to those in the ‘relationship’ category.
Various studies have reported significant differences across men and women in their
exposures to negative work environments and in their coping strategies (Bradway, 2009;
He et al., 2002). Bolino and Turnley (2005) suggested that the relationship between
individual initiative and work-family conflict is stronger among women than among
men. Darling et al. (2007) found that ‘female college students experience greater stress
from quality of friendships, love relationships and relationships with parents’ (p.215).
However, Murphy et al. (2009) did not find any significant differences in comparative
levels of stress between male and female dental and medical students.
Based on the theory and research reviewed above, the present study made the following
predictions:
H1a: There is a significant difference in the mean stress scores of Russian male students and Russian
female students.
H1b: There is a significant difference in the mean stress scores of Russian married students and Russian
single students.
Gender, marital status and coping
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) identify three basic outcomes of stress: social functioning,
morale, and somatic health. Barnett, Niener, and Baruch (1987) found that male and
female respondents usually ‘adopt different coping strategies when they are under stress’
(p. 350). Some scholars found women more likely to use emotional-focused coping
strategies compared to men who were found to be more proficient in problem-focused
coping strategies (Billings & Moos, 1981; Hall, 2018; Stone & Neale, 1984). Hall (2018)
examined how Black mothers and daughters coped with stress and found that socializa
tion and education helped them learn how to cope with stress.
In respect of the use of unhealthy behaviours, according to Ogloblin and Brock (2011),
‘women with a college degree smoked 68.6% less than women with general secondary
4 N. ERMASOVA ET AL.
6. education, while women with below-secondary education smoked 50.3% more than those
with general secondary education. In 2009, the respective percentages are 83.0% and
69.4%’ (p.43). Budescu, Taylor, and McGill (2011) found that ‘kin social support moderated
the association of poverty-related stress with smoking and drinking’ and that ‘For women
with higher levels of kin support, the positive association of neighborhood crime and
drinking was less apparent compared with women with low support’ (p.452). Ogloblin and
Brock (2011) found that the marginal effects of marriage on women’s smoking was
negative.
Holmbeck and Wandrei (1993) examined social support from parents and adaptation to
university life by female and male college students. They found that higher levels of
parental social support were associated with lower levels of stated anxiety and depression
for female students. According to Darling et al. (2007), female students ‘who do not have
stress in their parental or family relationships tend to have better emotional and physical
health, as well as quality of life’ (p.226). Hall et al. (2019) found that ‘black women with
spouses or domestic partners are better able to adapt to stress than those who are not in
partnerships or married’ (p.39).
Based on the theory and research reviewed above, the present study proposes the following
hypotheses:
H2a: There is a significant difference in the mean values of the reported efficacy of coping methods of
Russian male students and Russian female students.
H2b: There is a significant difference in the mean values of the reported efficacy of coping methods of
Russian married students and Russian single students.
Educational culture – obstacles to help seeking
Some scholars found that organizational psychologists employed to monitor negative condi
tions can reduce college students’ stress (Ermasova, Nguyen, & Bruce, 2017; Moffat,
McConnachie, Ross, & Morrison, 2004; Patterson, 2004). Patterson (2004) argues that
a supportive environment should include social support and positive emotion-focused coping
(Ben-Zur, 2020)2
as such coping strategies reduce the negative impact of stress on well-being.
Moffat et al. (2004) suggest that ‘increased student feedback and guidance about progress
throughout the year and the provision of adequate learning resources may reduce student
stress. Educational or pastoral intervention regarding effective coping strategies may also be
beneficial’ (p.482).
The risk of serious and chronic stress increases when a student is deprived of the support of
classmates, friends, and family. Lee (1988) wrote about the importance of such support for overall
emotional well-being and found that 85% of women and 70% of men, in the study, reported having
a confidant. Our study analyzes the students’ choice in whom they confide during periods of stress,
based on their gender and marital status.
Considering the above-mentioned findings on educational culture, we consider the following
factors that may influence students’ perceptions on the use of a confidant during periods of stress
and the effect of help-seeking in reducing stress: (1) the stigma attached to seeking help to reduce
stress and (2) a discouraging educational culture.
Based on the theory and research reviewed above, the present study made the following
predictions:
H3a: Russian male students will have different perceptions of the use of confidants in stressful situations
to Russian female students.
JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 5
7. H3b: Russian married students will have different perceptions of the use of confidants in stressful
situations to Russian single students.
Methods
Data and sample characteristics
The study results derive from an analysis of the Stress and Coping Questionnaire (Appendix A),
created and administered by the authors during 2019–2020. The target respondents were Russian
student who were 18 years of age and above. The English version of the survey was first translated
into Russian then was back-translated into English. Both the original English and the back-translated
versions were compared and checked by three university professors3
to ensure the validity of the
instrument. They concluded that there was no significant difference.
The study was reviewed and approved as an exempt study by the Institutional Review Board (IRB)
of the researchers. The study protocol was designed and executed in compliance with the code of
ethics set out by the university in which the research was done, with the informed consent of all
participants. Before beginning the study, the participants were informed of the objectives and were
asked to participate; they were assured of anonymity and the confidentiality of their responses.
The study results derive from the Analysis of stressors and stress-relieving tactics Questionnaire,
created and administered by authors. In this study, participation was restricted to residents of the
Russian Federation. The survey was distributed in person and online among students in 24 universities
and colleges in Russia, generating 539 completed questionnaires which qualified for analysis. An
explanation of the study, the procedure for maintaining confidentiality, and detailed instructions on
how to complete the questionnaire successfully were included with the survey to obtain informed
consent. The authors assumed that if respondents read and proceeded to take the survey (either hard-
copy or online), they consented to the data being used for the purpose that had been specified. For
those questionnaires completed through the web link, the data were automatically saved and con
verted into a database in excel format for analysis. For those questionnaires completed in hard-copy,
the data were entered manually. The majority of respondents were from Moscow, Sankt-Petersburg,
Kazan, Samara, Omsk, Novosibirsk, Chelyabinsk, Ivanovo, Rostov, Volgograd, Saratov, and Ulyanovsk.
As part of the survey, respondents provided personal information regarding their age, gender,
education, marital status, work experience, length of study, current major of study, and current
educational level. A total of 118 men (making up 22% of the study population) and 421 women
(making up 78% of the study population) took part in this research. In Russia, the percentage of
female students in tertiary education in 2020 was 53.13% (Trading Economics, 2020).4
There was
a total of 255 married students (making up 47.3% of the study population) with single students
numbering 284 of the participants (making up 52.7% of the study population).
Most participants in this study were between 18 and 29 years old (n = 493, or 91.4%), followed by
30–39 years (n = 24, or 4.4%). The age group of 40+ years included 22 participants (4.1%). The
information about sample characteristics in terms of sex,5
age, educational level, and marital status
are illustrated in Table 1.
Measures and analysis strategy
Respondents were asked to identify the effect of potential stressors during their study and how
effective the stress-relieving mechanisms they might use were perceived to be. They were also asked
about the use of support services offered by their college or university.
To test our hypotheses, first, we analysed whether gender and marital status had an effect on
perceived stressors, using an ANOVA test to compare groups. Then we repeated the test to identify
6 N. ERMASOVA ET AL.
8. whether their perceptions of help-seeking varied between men and women, as well as different
marital status groups.
Results
First, we used an analysis of variance (ANOVA) to compare the mean perceptions of stressors by
gender and by marital status.
Gender
The first research question examined the relationship between gender and perceived stressors. The
Stress and Coping Questionnaire had the following Questions: ‘Which of the following situations
have ever caused you stress? Please rate them on a scale of 1 to 4: where 1 – caused no stress, 2-
a little stress, 3- mid-level stress, 4 – serious stress’. The higher Mean would show that a respondent
reported higher levels of stress in relation to the situation described. Principal stressors for Russian
students were related to interpersonal relationships. Russian students perceived the highest stressor
to be personal problems (Mean = 3.43), the second highest stressor was family problems
(Mean = 3.17), and the third highest stressor was poor relationships with peers/classmates
(Mean = 2.71).
The results presented in Table 2 show a significant difference between male and female students
in mean values in stress perception scores related to financial problems (F = 8.27, p =.0042 < 0.01);
poor relationships with classmates (F = 4.52, p = .034 < 0.05); personal problems (F = 22.28,
Table 1. Demographic variables (N = 539).
Variables Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
Age 18 to 29 493 91.4 91.4
30 to 39 24 4.4 95.8
40 and above 22 4.1 100.0
Total 539 100.0
Sex Female 421 78 78
Male 118 22 100.0
Total 539 100.0
Marital status Married or domestic partner 255 47.3 47.3
Single 284 52.7 100
Total 539 100
Education Working on earning Bachelor’s Degree 452 83.8 83.8
Working on earning Master’s Degree 64 11.8 95.6
Working on earning Doctorate Degree 23 4.4 100.0
Total 539 100
Table 2. ANOVA comparison for perceived stressors, by gender.
Stressors
Mean
Total Std. Deviation Mean Female Mean Male F Sig.
Financial problems 2.51 0.89 2.57 2.30 8.27 0.0042**
Poor relationships with peers/classmates 2.71 1.35 2.78 2.48 4.52 0.034**
Personal problems 3.43 0.86 3.52 3.11 22.28 0.000****
Family problems 3.17 1.14 3.28 2.77 18.98 0.000****
Poor relationships with supervisor
or research adviser
1.81 0.61 1.86 1.65 10.84 0.001***
Unfair teacher (unfair grading, etc.) 2.03 0.65 2.11 1.78 22.87 0.000****
Unfair disciplinary action 1.93 0.69 1.96 1.83 3.45 0.064*
My ideas are not taken into account 1.85 0.65 1.87 1.79 1.16 0.28
High load of study 2.64 0.84 2.71 2.38 14.82 0.001***
Social network 1.24 0.58 1.23 1.28 0.76 0.385
Notes: Significant at **** p <.001; *** p <.01; ** p <.05; * p <.10
JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 7
9. p = .00 < 0.001); family problems (F = 18.98, p = .00 < 0.001); poor relationships with supervisor or
research adviser (F = 8.27, p = .0042 < 0.01); unfair teacher (unfair grading or treatment) (F = 10.84,
p = .001 < 0.01); and high load of study (F = 2.38, p = .0001 < 0.001). The ANOVA test also revealed
a significant difference at the marginal probability level (F = 3.45, p. = .064 < 0.10) in unfair discipline
stress perception scores (Table 2).
There was no significant difference between female and male students in the mean values in
stress scores related to their social network or in when they perceived that their ideas and opinions
were ignored by academic staff. The test also revealed that the average mean values for the female
respondents, in ranking the impact of stressors, were higher than the mean values for male
respondents, suggesting that on average female students were impacted more by stressors than
male students were. Only stress perceptions’ scores related to social networks were higher for male
students (Mean = 1.28) than for female students (Mean = 1.23).
Marital status
The second research question examined the relationship between the student’s marital status and
perceived stressors. The results presented in Table 3 show a significant difference between married
and single students in mean values in stress scores.
There were significant differences between single and married students in the mean values in
stress scores related to financial problems, poor relationships with peers, personal problems, family
problems, poor relationships with supervisor or research adviser, unfair teacher, unfair disciplinary
action, the student’s perception that their ideas and opinions were ignored by academic staff and
high loads of study. The results revealed the mean values for the single respondents, in ranking the
impact of stressors, to be higher than those for the married students, suggesting that on average
single students were impacted by the stressors more than married students were.
Coping
Gender
The third research question examined the relationship between the student’s gender and coping
methods. The Stress and Coping Questionnaire (Appendix A) contained the following Questions:
‘How do you alleviate stress? Please rate the answers in the list below on a scale from 1 to 5: 1 – helps
most of all, 2 – helps, but not always, 3 - no opinion, 4 – helps very rarely, 5 – never helps’. A lower
mean would suggest that the respondent was more likely to use this method since it was perceived
to be more helpful. The lowest mean was for the coping methods of sport/walking/biking
(Mean = 2.41). Students also used the coping methods of sex (Mean = 2.62), food (Mean = 2.69),
meditation/prayer (Mean total = 3.06), alcohol (Mean total = 3.35), and smoking (Mean total = 3.48).
Table 3. ANOVA comparison for perceived stressors, by marital status.
Stressors
Mean
Total Std. Deviation Mean Single Mean Married F Sig.
Financial problems 2.51 0.89 2.53 2.48 0.46 .49**
Poor relationships with peers 2.71 1.35 3.52 1.81 361.6 .00****
Personal problems 3.43 0.86 3.75 3.08 92.57 .00****
Family problems 3.17 1.14 3.71 2.56 180.5 .00****
Poor relationships with supervisor
or research adviser
1.81 0.61 1.94 1.67 26.7 .00****
Unfair teacher (unfair grading, etc.) 2.03 0.65 1.96 2.11 6.74 .009***
Unfair disciplinary action 1.93 0.69 2.0 1.86 5.31 0.02**
My ideas are not taken into account 1.85 0.64 1.91 1.73 17.16 .00****
High load of study 2.64 0.84 2.81 2.45 24.91 .00****
Social network 1.63 0.81 1.66 1.6 0.68 0.41
Notes: Significant at **** p <.001; *** p <.01; ** p <.05; * p <.10
8 N. ERMASOVA ET AL.
10. The results presented in Table 4 show a significant difference between female and male students in
mean values for use of coping mechanisms related to sport/walking (F = 9.7, p = .0002 < 0.001). The
ANOVA test also revealed a significant difference at the marginal probability level (F = 5.0,
p. = .02 < 0.05) in coping scores related to smoking (Table 4).
There was no significant difference between female and male students in the mean values in
respect of the following stress coping mechanisms: food, alcohol, sex, and social networks. The
scores related to coping mechanisms such as sport were higher for female students (Mean = 2.51)
than for male students (Mean = 2.1). This means that male students express a preference for the use
sport/exercising as a means of relieving stress more than female students do.
The mean score in respect of smoking as a coping mechanism was lower for male students
(Mean = 3.26) than for female students (Mean = 3.55). This suggest that the male students were more
likely to use smoking as a coping mechanism than female students. In Russia, in 2019, 60% of men
and 22% women smoked (Foundation for Smoke-free World, 2020). Russia has a larger adult smoking
population than any country in Europe and approximately 35 million people (aged 15 and over)
currently smoke in Russia (ibid.). Ogloblin and Brock (2011) pointed out that smoking in women is
a growing problem in Russia and Perlman et al. (2007) demonstrated that the age-adjusted pre
valence of smoking among Russian women during the period 1992–2003 more than doubled from
6.9% to 14.8%. Ogloblin and Brock (2011), however, found that education is an increasingly
important factor in reducing women’s smoking which may be relevant to this study.
Marital status
The fourth research question examined the relationship between the student’s marital status and
coping methods and the results are shown in Table 5. The ANOVA test revealed a significant
difference at the marginal probability level (F = 2.92, p. = .08 < 0.1) in scores related to using alcohol
as a method for coping with stress (Table 5).
There was no significant difference between married and single students in the mean values in
respect of coping mechanisms such as food, smoking, sex, meditation and use of social networks.
The scores related to the use of alcohol were lower for single students (Mean = 3.25) than for married
Table 4. ANOVA comparison of stress relievers (coping), by gender.
Coping methods
Mean
Total Std. Deviation Mean female Mean male F Sig.
Food 2.69 1.24 2.68 2.7 0.01 0.91
Alcohol 3.35 1.23 3.27 3.36 0.08 0.77
Smoking 3.48 1.24 3.55 3.26 5.00 0.02**
Sport/walking/biking 2.41 1.25 2.51 2.10 9.70 0.002***
Sex 2.62 1.15 2.64 2.56 0.55 0.46
Meditation/prayer 3.06 1.14 3.07 3.04 0.07 0.79
Social network 2.97 1.23 2.94 3.13 2.15 0.14
Notes: Significant at **** p <.001; *** p <.01; ** p <.05; * p <.10
Table 5. ANOVA comparison of stress relievers, by marital status.
Coping methods
Mean
Total Std. Deviation Mean Single Mean Married F Sig.
Food 2.69 1.24 2.65 2.72 0.44 0.51
Alcohol 3.35 1.23 3.25 3.43 2.92 0.08*
Smoking 3.49 1.24 3.42 3.55 1.33 0.25
Sport/walking/biking 2.41 1.25 2.36 2.47 1.00 0.31
Sex 2.62 1.15 2.61 2.65 0.18 0.67
Meditation/prayer 3.06 1.14 3.08 3.04 0.14 0.70
Social network 1.63 0.81 1.66 1.6 0.68 0.41
JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 9
11. students (Mean = 3.43). This suggests that the single students may be more likely to use alcohol as
a coping mechanism than married students.
The person or people in whom the students confided
Gender
The fifth objective of this study was to discover with whom students are most likely to discuss
stressful situations. The Stress and Coping Questionnaire contained the following Questions: ‘If you
talk about your stress, who are you most likely to consult. Please rate the answers in the list below on
a scale from 1 to 5: 1 – helps most of all, 2 – helps, but not always, 3 - no opinion, 4 – helps very rarely,
5 – never helps’. The lowest mean was for participants’ confiding in friends (Mean total = 1.76), then
family (Mean total = 1.99), then a Psychologist (Mean total = 3.14). The results presented in Table 6
show no significant difference between male and female students.
Marital status
The sixth research question examined the relationship between the student’s marital status and the
people in whom they confided. The lowest mean was for participants confiding in friends (Mean
total = 1.76), the second lowest was family (Mean total = 1.99) and the third lowest was
a Psychologist (Mean total = 3.14). The ANOVA test revealed a significant difference at the probability
level (F = 10.34, p. = .0001 < 0.001) related to family members as someone in whom the respondents
confided (Table 7). The scores for this were higher for single students (Mean = 2.15) than for married
students (Mean = 1.81). This suggests that married students were more likely to confide in family
when stressed than single students.
Educational culture and stigma for help-seeking
We looked at likely sources of discouragement in seeking help for managing stress. To investigate
this participants were invited to indicate their agreement or disagreement with statements using
a 5-point Likert-type scale, where a score of 1 corresponded to ‘absolutely agree’ and a score of 5
corresponded to ‘absolutely disagree’. The statements put to them were as follows: ‘People will
consider me a weak person if I go to a psychologist’, ‘In my school, programs dedicated to dealing
Table 6. ANOVA comparison of parties in whom participants confided, by gender.
Coping methods
Mean
Total Std. Deviation Mean Female Mean Male F Sig.
Family 1.99 1.20 2.00 1.94 0.26 0.61
Friends 1.76 0.95 1.79 1.66 1.84 0.17
Faith 3.50 1.04 3.50 3.49 0.01 0.91
Psychologist 3.14 1.06 3.11 3.25 1.47 0.22
Notes: Significant at **** p <.001; *** p <.01; ** p <.05; * p <.10
Note: Based on participants self-reporting of who was identified as the most likely confidant.
Table 7. ANOVA comparison of parties in whom participants confided, by marital status.
Coping methods
Mean
Total Std. Deviation Mean Single Mean Married F Sig.
Family 1.99 1.20 2.15 1.81 10.34 0.001**
Friends 1.76 0.95 1.79 1.73 0.45 0.50
Faith 3.50 1.06 3.10 3.18 0.80 0.37
Psychologist 3.14 1.25 2.36 2.47 1.00 0.31
Notes: Significant at **** p <.001; *** p <.01; ** p <.05; * p <.10
Note: Based on participants self-reporting of who was identified as the most likely confidant.
10 N. ERMASOVA ET AL.
12. with stress are not a priority’, ‘I disapprove of the use stress reduction programs by my peers’ and ‘I’d
rather talk to a colleague or friend than go to a psychologist’.
Gender
Table 8 provides the comparison for Russian students’ perception of help-seeking by
gender. The results presented in Table 8 show a significant difference (F = 7.4,
p. = .0067 < .01) between male and female students in their perception of the use of
support services for all statements except in their disapproval of the use of support
services by the peers. In believing that the use of a psychologist leads to the perception
of weakness there was a lower mean value for male students (M = 3.88) than for female
students (M = 4.09) suggesting that male students may be less likely to use a psychologist
than female students. On the matter of whether support services were prioritized by
colleges here was a higher mean value for male students (M = 2.47) than for female
students (M = 2.16) suggesting that female students agreed more that these were not
a priority on campus. In showing a preference for talking to friends rather than to
a psychologist male students had a lower mean (M = 3.29) than female students
(M = 3.76) suggesting that male students are more likely to talk to friends over
a psychologist.
Marital status
Table 9 provides the comparison for Russian students’ reported help-seeking by marital status. The
results presented in Table 9 show a significant difference (F = 7.4, p. = .0067 < .01) between married
and single students in their perception of the use of support services for two of the statements. There
was a higher mean value for single (M = 4.17) than for married students (M = 3.91) in respect of the
perception that one is considered weak for consulting a psychologist suggesting single students are
more open to using such a service. In showing a preference for talking to friends rather than to
a psychologist married students had a lower mean (M = 2.9) than single students did (M = 3.18)
suggesting that married students are more likely to discuss stress with friends over a psychologist.
Table 8. ANOVA how help-seeking is perceived, by gender.
Coping methods
Mean
Total
Std.
Deviation
Mean
female
Mean
male F Sig.
People will consider me a weak person if I got to
a psychologist
4.05 1.03 4.09 3.88 3.64 0.056*
In my school, programs dedicated to dealing with stress are
not a priority
2.23 1.09 2.16 2.47 7.4 0.0067**
I disapprove of the use stress reduction programs by my peers. 2.98 1.05 2.98 2.99 0.00 0.96
I’d rather talk to a colleague or friend than go to a psychologist 3.66 1.1 3.76 3.29 17.35 0.00****
Notes: Significant at **** p <.001; *** p <.01; ** p <.05; * p <.10
Table 9. ANOVA how help-seeking is perceived, by marital status.
Coping methods
Mean
Total
Std.
Deviation
Mean
Single
Mean
Married F Sig.
People will consider me a weak person if I go to a psychologist 4.05 1.03 4.17 3.91 9.03 0.003**
In my school, programs dedicated to dealing with stress are
not a priority
2.23 1.09 2.17 2.30 1.88 0.17
I disapprove of the use stress reduction programs by my peers. 2.98 1.05 3.04 2.92 1.65 0.19
I’d rather talk to a colleague or friend than go to a psychologist 3.05 1.18 3.18 2.90 7.90 0.005**
Notes: Significant at **** p <.001; *** p <.01; ** p <.05; * p <.10
JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 11
13. Conclusion
This study conducted a quantitative study based on a questionnaire created and administered by the
authors which identified the demographics of participants, participant’s perceptions of the sources
of stress and their views on the use of particular stress management mechanisms. The analyses
conducted provide novel information on differences by gender and marital status. The results
contain information which helps enable improvements in managing students stress. The findings
show that the top four stressors for the sample population were personal problems, family problems,
poor relationships with peers/classmates, and financial problems. The responses of Russian students
provided a more detailed look at the role of conflict in personal relationships, peer relationships and
family relationships in students’ lives. Personal problems were selected as the highest source of
stress for students. The responses indicated that in addition to the typical stressors of college life,
such as unfair grades, financial problems, high study load, relationships are also stressors for some
college students; in particular for female students. Table 10 provides the results of hypothesis
testing.
Female students reported significant higher stress levels in relation to the following: financial
problems, poor relationships with classmates, personal problems, family problems, poor relation
ships with supervisor or research adviser, unfair teaching and high study loads. Male students
express a preference for the use sport/exercising as a means of relieving stress more than female
students do. Harpold and Feemster note the importance of such measures in stress management:
‘Once a commitment is made to fight back against the negative factors of stress, life becomes
healthier and more enjoyable’ (Harpold & Feemster, 2002, p. 6). However, male students were also
more likely to use smoking as a coping mechanism than female students.
Regardless of gender students reported confiding more in friends, then family and then in
a Psychologist. Male students were more likely to agree that the use of a psychologist leads to
a perception of weakness in them. Female students were more likely to agree that support services
were not a priority on campus. Male students were more likely than female students to show
a preference for talking to friends over a psychologist.
Single students reported being more greatly impacted by potential stressors than married
students. The results suggest that single students may be more likely to use alcohol as a coping
Table 10. Hypothesis testing results.
Hypothesis
Confirmed/
Not confirmed
H1a: There is a significant difference in mean stress scores in
Russian male students and Russian female students.
Confirmed for financial stress, poor relationships with
classmates, personal problems, family problems, poor
relationships with supervisor or research adviser, unfair
teacher and high loads of study.
Not confirmed for stress when the ideas of students are not
taken into account and for stress from social networks.
H1b: There is a significant difference in mean stress scores in
Russian married students and Russian single students.
Confirmed for financial stress, personal problems, family
problems, poor relationships with supervisor or research
adviser, unfair grading, high load of study and for stress
when the ideas of students are not taken into account.
Not confirmed for stress from social networks.
H2a: There is a significant difference in the use of coping
methods by Russian male students and Russian female
students
Confirmed for smoking and sport/walking.
Not confirmed for food, alcohol, sex, and social networks.
H2b: There is a significant difference in coping methods used by
Russian married students and Russian single students
Confirmed for alcohol.
Not confirmed for food, smoking and sex.
H3a: Russian male students will have different choices in whom
they confide in stressful situations to Russian female students
Confirmed in respect of likelihood in talking to a friend over
a psychologist.
H3b: Russian married students will have different choices in
whom they confide in stressful situations to Russian single
students
Confirmed only for family as the party in whom students
confide.
12 N. ERMASOVA ET AL.
14. mechanism than married students. Married students were more likely to confide in family, when
stressed, than single students.
The stress reliever selected most often was the use of confidants. The study highlights the
importance of supportive relationships with family and friends. Our study shows that Russian
students preferred speaking with friends over a psychologist.
Understanding the effect of academic and interpersonal stressors is an important tool in under
standing students’ decisions to seek help. Our findings on the roles of gender and marital status may
assist administrators in targeting efforts to create more sensitive cultural environments that reduce
the effect of stressors on those students who may experience higher levels of stress.
Psychologists and higher education professionals might also consider the beliefs held by
students concerning the appropriateness of seeking out campus support services. Strategies that
provide alternative coping resources should be considered. Programmes could be developed that
help students connect with social or other coping resources that fit their definition of viable
coping options. These programs may include those that assist students in accessing support from
family members, friends, religious institutions, or other types of resources. Moffat et al. (2004)
suggest that ‘continued follow-up of this cohort could provide information to inform further
curriculum development and, if appropriate, aid the design of programs for the prevention of
stress-related problems’ (p.482). Our study indicates a lack of therapeutic/support programs in
Russian universities and colleges but also highlights students’ hesitation in using these. This is
consistent with the findings Nersessova, Jurcik, and Hulsey (2019) who found that, when compared
to respondents from the US, Russians were less likely to turn to someone they trust in times of
stress, more likely to try to deal with problems on their own and viewed those with depression as
‘weak-willed’ and leading an ‘immoral lifestyle’ (p.388).
It is impossible to eliminate stress or relationship issues from student life, but we can and should
do a more thorough job of preparing students to confront the high levels of stress encountered
during tertiary education. The results of our study may represent a significant practical contribution
and help increase our understanding of the importance of the availability of psychological resources
in the prevention of academic and non-academic stress.
Limitations and future studies
There are a number of limitations that may affect the generalizability of the findings in this study.
One of the limitations of our study is the limited population of Russian students. The generalization
of this study’s results cannot necessarily extend to all Russian students. Future studies should expand
the sample to include students from other cities and regions in the country. In addition, future
studies should examine stress in students from neighbouring countries and from Europe.
In addition, this study only examined a two demographic factors independently – gender and
marital status. Future research should be extended to examine how membership of other demo
graphic categories affects the management and perception of stress. This study also did not drill
down into any differences between married and single men and women in their management of
stress.
There was also a disproportionate number of women in the sample. Thus, findings indicating that
stress is experienced differently by men and women may be influenced by the latter group having
more statistical power in this study. Future studies should collect data through longitudinal or time-
series studies that would provide a depiction of stress and coping throughout the college experience
instead of an examination of stress at one point in time, as done in this study. These limitations are
areas in which future research may attend to strengthening what is known about stress and coping
among men and women participating in tertiary education and, single and married, students. The
results here had varying degrees of significance.
Further research is needed to develop and implement effective stress management interventions
for colleges and universities.
JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 13
15. Notes
1. Our study and the studies on which we rely, categorize gender as man or woman and we have not therefore
looked at non-binary individuals and the stress experienced by these groups in post-compulsory education.
2. According to Ben-Zur (2020), emotion-focused coping regulates (tolerates, reduces, or eliminates) the physio
logical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural reactions that accompany the experience of stressful encounters.
Emotion-focused coping can be positive or negative. Positive emotion-focused coping includes talking or
writing about emotions, meditation and/or distraction with other activities. Negative emotion-focused coping
mechanisms include the suppression of emotions, avoidance, and substance use such as alcohol or tobacco.
3. The native language of the three professors (who work in the US) is Russian (though they have a combination of
Russian and US Qualifications).
4. Tertiary education refers to any type of education pursued beyond high school – it includes diplomas, under
graduate and graduate certificates, as well as associate, bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees.
5. Respondents were asked to state whether they belonged to male gender or female gender. In Russian this is
respectively мужской пол and женский пол and respondents were given a third option of ‘prefer not to answer’.
When reporting the results here we refer to male and female students as belonging to the categories of ‘men’
and ‘women’ respectively. We recognize that in translation this leads to some conflation of sex with gender and
we have, as much as possible throughout this article, tried to be consistent in respect of this.
Her areas of expertise
Social Media in marketing and teaching; Global Health; Social media marketing and Health administration.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors
Dr. Natalia Ermasova is an Associate Professor at Governors State University, IL. She has a PhD of Public Affairs (SPEA,
Indiana University, USA), PhD of Economics (Russia). Her primary research interests are capital budgeting, business
ethics, public finance, risk-management, innovation management, and public finance. Before starting her work in the
USA, she worked as a Professor of Finance in the Volga Region Academy for Civil Services in Russia for 12 years. She was
Visiting Professor in Germany (Ludwigsburg Academy for Civil Services) and Fulbright Visiting Professor (SPEA, Indiana
University). More than 45 books and articles were published in Russia and more than 30 articles published in the USA.
Her articles were published in Public Finance and Management, State and Local Government Review, International
Journal of Public Administration Research, Journal of Management Development. E-mail: nermasova@govst.edu
Evgenia Ermasova is a Junior at DePaul University working toward a Bachelor of Management (Concentrating on
Human Resources). She is an HR intern at TTX Company. She has previous work experience at Morgan Stanley. Evgenia
is the Director of Events for DePaul Net Impact.
Natalia Rekhter is an Assistant Professor and Director of Undergraduate Health Services Administration Program at
Governors State University, Illinois. She is an experienced higher education professional with expertise directing
undergraduate and graduate health administration programs in public and private universities and teaching in face-
to-face, online and hybrid environments. Her research agenda includes social media for marketing and education,
healthcare access, and stress among different professional and demographic groups. She is a two times recipient of a
Fulbright Specialist Award as well as a recipient of Serve Indiana Awards for Excellence.
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