• CHO : CHO may be defined as polyhydroxy aldehyde, ketones or acids and their derivatives. • CHO : Based on their digestibility & solubility , the CHO divided in to two parts – Soluble CHO / easily digest - NFE ( Sugar, Starch, Hemicelluloses) – Insoluble CHO / less digest in non ruminant but digestible in ruminant (Crude fibre, cellulose, Ligniin) • Carbohydrates are neutral chemical compounds containing the elements carbon, hydrogen & oxygen & have empirical formula (CH2O)n where n is three or more. CARBOHYDRATES Function of carbohydrates • Important source of energy • As important food reserves • In the storage of Liver and muscle of the liver Glycogen Liver glycogen muscle glycogen • In the seed →as starc • Transfer of genetic characteristic of the cell • Carbohydrates make the matrix of connective tissue eg. Hyaluronic acid • They make structural part of cartilage, bone and tendons eg. Chondroitin sulphate • Oxidation of protein & fat as they are important component. • Essential component of milk as lactose. • It helpful in absorption of calcium & phosphorus in younger animals. • They help in peristaltic movement of food. Classification of carbohydrates: 17 In nutrition, carbohydrates are classied into five groups: • (1) monosaccharides (also known as simple sugars); • (2) disaccharides (containing 2 monosaccharide units); • (3) oligosaccharides (containing 3–10 monosaccharide units); • (4) polysaccharides (containing more than 10 monosaccharide units); and • (5) conjugated carbohydrates. covalently bound to lipids or proteins to form glycolipids or glycoproteins, respectively. Polysaccharides are subdivided into – Homopolysaccharides (containing only one type of monosaccharide) and – Heteropolysaccharides (containing more than one type of monosaccharide). Classification of Carbohydrates • Monosaccharides – Trioses (C3H6O3) Glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone – Tetroses (C4H8O4) Erythrose – Pentoses (C5H10O5) Aarabinase, xylose, xylulose, ribose, ribulose, and 5-deoxyribose – Hexoses (C6H12O6) Glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose – Heptoses (C7H14O7) Sedoheptulose, mannoheptulose (in avocados), and -glycero--manno-heptose • Disaccharides Sucrose (-α-glucose and -α-fructose), lactose (milk sugar; -α-glucose and -α-galactose), maltose, isomaltose, cellobiose, α,α-trehalose, α,β-trehalose, and β,β-trehalose) • Oligosaccharides – Trisaccharides, Rafnose, kestose, maltotriose (three units of glucose), planteose, and melezitose (in sweet exudates of many trees and in insects), and panose (synthesized by microbes) – Tetrasaccharides Stachyose and lychnose (1-α-galactosyl-rafnose) 18 • Polysaccharides – Homoglycans • Pentosans (C5H8O4)n, for example, arabans and xylans • Hexosans (C6H12O6)n, for example, starch, cellulose, mannans, levans, and glycogen – Heteroglycansd Hemicelluloses, pectins, exudate gums, seaweed polysaccharides (algin, carrageenans, agar, aminopolysaccharides [e.g., chondroitin and hyal

1. PRESENTATION
TITLE : CARBOHYDRATES
Dr. Rahul
Kumar Dangi

2. CARBOHYDRATES
 • CHO : CHO may be defined as polyhydroxy aldehyde, ketones or acids and
their derivatives.
 • CHO : Based on their digestibility & solubility , the CHO divided in to two
parts
1. – Soluble CHO / easily digest - NFE ( Sugar, Starch, Hemicelluloses)
2. – Insoluble CHO / less digest in non ruminant but digestible in ruminant
(Crude fibre, cellulose, Ligniin)
 • Carbohydrates are neutral chemical compounds containing the elements
carbon, hydrogen & oxygen & have empirical formula (CH2O)n where n is
three or more.
DR. RAHUL DANGI

3. FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
 • Important source of energy
 • As important food reserves
 • In the storage of Liver and muscle of the liver Glycogen
Liver glycogen muscle glycogen
 • In the seed →as starch
 • Transfer of genetic characteristic of the cell
DR. RAHUL DANGI

4. • Carbohydrates make the matrix of
connective tissue eg. Hyaluronic acid
• They make structural part of cartilage, bone
and tendons eg. Chondroitin sulphate
• Oxidation of protein & fat as they are
important component.
• Essential component of milk as lactose.
• It helpful in absorption of calcium &
phosphorus in younger animals.
• They help in peristaltic movement of food.
DR. RAHUL DANGI

5. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES:
 In nutrition, carbohydrates are classied into five groups:
 • (1) monosaccharides (also known as simple sugars);
 • (2) disaccharides (containing 2 monosaccharide units);
 • (3) oligosaccharides (containing 3–10 monosaccharide units);
 • (4) polysaccharides (containing more than 10 monosaccharide units); and
 • (5) conjugated carbohydrates. covalently bound to lipids or proteins to form glycolipids or
glycoproteins, respectively. Polysaccharides are subdivided into
I. – Homopolysaccharides (containing only one type of monosaccharide) and
II. – Heteropolysaccharides (containing more than one type of monosaccharide).
DR. RAHUL DANGI

6. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
 • Monosaccharides –
i. Trioses (C3H6O3) Glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone –
ii. Tetroses (C4H8O4) Erythrose –
iii. Pentoses (C5H10O5) Aarabinase, xylose, xylulose, ribose, ribulose, and 5-deoxyribose –
iv. Hexoses (C6H12O6) Glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose –
v. Heptoses (C7H14O7) Sedoheptulose, mannoheptulose (in avocados), and -glycero--manno-
heptose
 • Disaccharides Sucrose (-α-glucose and -α-fructose), lactose (milk sugar; -α-glucose and -α-
galactose), maltose, isomaltose, cellobiose, α,α-trehalose, α,β-trehalose, and β,β-trehalose)
 • Oligosaccharides
I. – Trisaccharides, Rafnose, kestose, maltotriose (three units of glucose), planteose, and
melezitose (in sweet exudates of many trees and in insects), and panose (synthesized by
microbes) DR. RAHUL DANGI

7. POLYSACCHARIDES
 – Homoglycans
I. • Pentosans (C5H8O4)n, for example, arabans and xylans
II. • Hexosans (C6H12O6)n, for example, starch, cellulose, mannans, levans, and glycogen
 – Heteroglycans Hemicelluloses, pectins, exudate gums, seaweed polysaccharides (algin, carrageenans,
agar, aminopolysaccharides [e.g., chondroitin and hyaluronic acid], and sulfated polysaccharides [e.g.,
chondroitin sulfate])
 • Conjugated carbohydrates
i. – Glycolipids: Glyceroglycolipids and sphingolipids
ii. – Glycoproteins : Mucins, immunoglobulins, and membrane-bound hormone receptors
DR. RAHUL DANGI

8. Monosaccharides :-
 • Monosaccharides or simple sugars are those that can not be
hydrolysed into simpler form’ seldom found free in nature.
 • They constitute the building block of more complex carbohydrate
molecules. • Because of the presence of an active aldehyde or ketone
grouping, the monosaccharides act as reducing substances.
 • They may be subdivided into trioses, pentoses or hexoses, depending
upon the no. of carbon atom they posses; as aldoses or ketoses,
depending upon whether the aldehyde or ketone group is present.
 • All monosaccharides are highly soluble in water.
 • Monosaccharides commonly present in plant cell walls are hexoses (-
glucose, -galactose, and -mannose), pentoses (- arabinose and -
xylose), 6-deoxyhexoses (-rhamnose and - fucose), and uronic acids
(glucuronic and galacturonic or their 4-o-methyl ethers). DR. RAHUL DANGI

9. Pentoses: (C5H10O5 )
 • The most important members of this group are the
aldoses L-arabinose, D-xylose & Dribose, & the ketoses D-
xylulose & D-ribulose.
 • L-arabinose occurs as pentosans in arabinans. It is
component of hemicelluloses & it is found in silage as a
result of their hydrolysis.
 • D-xylose also occurs as pentosans in xylans.
 • D-ribose is present in all living cells as a component of
ribonucleic acid & it also a component of several vitamins
& coenzymes.
DR. RAHUL DANGI

10. Hexoses: (C6H12O6 )
 • Glucose & fructose are the most important naturally occurring hexose
sugars; while mannose & galactose occur in plants in a polymerised form
as mannans & galactans.
 1)D-glucose:
 • Also k/as grape sugar or dextrose or blood sugar.
 • Exists in free state as well as combined state.
 •In the pure state ,it is white crystalline solid & like all sugars is soluble in
water.
 • It occurs free in plants , fuits ,honey, blood ,lymph & CSF. • The majority
of carbohydrates taken in by the body are eventually converted to
glucose in a series of metabolic pathway.
 • Glucose is dextrorotatory.
 • Glucose is only 75% as sweet as sucrose i.e. table sugar but it has the
same caloric value. DR. RAHUL DANGI

11. • 2)D-fructose: • Fruit sugar or laevulose. • Fructose is the only
naturally occurring ketohexose. • It is the sweetest sugar & is
found together with glucose & sucrose, in sweeter fruits &
honey. • Green leafy crops usually contain appreciable
amounts of this sugar both free & polymerised form. • The
free state is a white crystalline solid . 23
• 3)D-galactose: • It doesn't occur free in nature except as a
breakdown product during fermentation. • It is present as a
constituent of the disaccharide lactose, which occurs in milk.
• 4)D-mannose: • It doesn't occur free in nature but exists in
polymerised form as mannans & also a component of
glycoproteins. • Mannans are found widely distributed yeasts ,
DR. RAHUL DANGI

12. OLIGOSACCHARIDES:
A)Disaccharides
B)Trisaccharides
C) Tetrasaccharides
 A)Disaccharides: These are compound sugars composed of two
monosaccharides, which linked with glycosidic bond • Sucrose –
table sugar • Lactose – milk sugar • Maltose – repeating unit of
starch • Cellobiose – repeating unit of cellulose
DR. RAHUL DANGI

13. Disaccharides
• Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
• Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
• Maltose = Glucose + Glucose with alpha
bond
• Cellobiose = Glucose + Glucose beta bond
DR. RAHUL DANGI

14.  1)Sucrose:
• Also known as beet sugar or cane sugar or table sugar or simply as sugar. • It is
probably the largest selling pure organic compound in the world . • Sucrose is
formed from one molecule of α-Dglucose & one molecule of β-D-fructose with
an α1,2 glycosidic bond linked together through an oxygen bridge between the
respective carbon atoms 1 & 2. • Sucrose has no active reducing group. • It is the
most ubiquitous & abundantly occurring disaccharide in plants, where it is the
main transport of carbon.
 2) Lactose:
• Also c/as milk sugar , is a product of mammary gland. • Cow’s milk contain 43-
48 g/kg. • It is not as soluble as & is less sweet , imparting only a faint sweet
taste to milk. • Lactose is formed from one molecule of α-D-glucose linked to
one of β-D-galactose in a β-1,4 galactosyl bond & has one active reducing
group. • It readily undergoes fermentation by a number of organisms , including
Streptococcus lactis. • S. lactis is responsible for souring of milk by converting
the lactose into lactic acid.
DR. RAHUL DANGI

15.  3)Maltose: • Also called malt sugar , is produced during the hydrolysis of
starch & glycogen by dilute acids or enzymes. • It is produced from
starch during the germination of barley by the action of enzyme
amylase. • Maltose is water soluble & not as sweet as sucrose. •
Structurally, it consists of two α-D-glucose residues linked in the α-1,4
positions & it has one active reducing group.
 4) Cellobiose • Cellobiose (the fundamental repeating unit of cellulose)
is a reducing sugar and consists of two β-D-glucose molecules linked by
the β-1,4 glycosidic bond. • Cellobiose can be synthesized from two
units of β-D-glucose or obtained by enzymatic or acidic hydrolysis of
cellulose and cellulose-rich materials (e.g., cotton and paper). • The
difference in the conguration of the glycosidic link between maltose (α-
1,4 bond) and cellobiose (the β-1,4 bond) is responsible for their
DR. RAHUL DANGI

16. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
 • Oligosaccharides consist of 3–10 units of
monosaccharides, which are linked via glycosidic
bonds.
 • Bacteria in the digestive tract of animals possess
enzymes to hydrolyze all oligosaccharides with α-1,4
or β-1,4 linkages.
DR. RAHUL DANGI

17. B)Trisaccharides:
1)Raffinose &
2)Kestose are two important
naturally occurring trisaccharides.
c)Tetrasaccharides ;These are made
up of four monosaccharide
residues. e.g. stachyose.
DR. RAHUL DANGI

18. POLYSACCHARIDES:
❶Homoglycans
❷Heteroglycans
DR. RAHUL DANGI

19. • ❶Homoglycans:
Homopolysaccharides (homoglycans) are polysaccharides consisting of a
single type of many monosaccharide molecules joined together through
glycosidic linkages.
• Depending on the monosugar, a homopolysaccharide may be called
I. glucan (consisting of -glucose);
II. fructan (consisting of fructose);
III. galactan (consisting of galactose);
IV. arabinan (consisting of arabinose); or
V. xylan (consisting of xylose).
• Plant-source homopolysaccharides include starch, cellulose, levans,
galactans, and β--glucans.
Glycogen serves to store glucose and energy in animals
• Animal cells can hydrolyze homopolysaccharides with an α-1,4 linkage but
not those with a β-1,4 linkage. However, cellulose, levans, galactans, and β--
glucans can be extensively degraded by enzymes released from bacteria
present in the rumen of ruminants and in the large intestine of all animals
DR. RAHUL DANGI

20. A)Arabinans & xylans : – These are polymers of
arabinose & xylose, respectively.
B)Glucans: 1) Starch 2) Dextrins 3) Glycogen 4)
Cellulose
5) Callose
DR. RAHUL DANGI

21. 1)Starch :
• It is present in many plants as a reserve carbohydrate . It is most abundant in seeds , fruits , tubers & roots . • Starches
naturally occur in the form of granules . • Starches differ in their chemical composition, except in rare instances, mixtures of
structurally different polysaccharides, amylose (straight chain polymer) & amylopectin (branched chain polymer). • The ratio of
amylose to amylopectin varies with the sources of starch, but it is usually 1:3 (g/g) • Amylose is mainly long linear in structure,
the α-D-glucose residues being linked between carbon 1 atom of one molecule & carbon atom 4 of the adjacent molecule. It
has no branch 38 1)Starch : • Amylopectin has a small chain brush like structure containing primarily α-(1→4) linkages in the
main chain and an appreciable number of α(1→6) linkages in branch chain. – Starch is made of repeating units of the
disaccharide MALTOSE – so it is really all: GLUCOSE • Starch granule are insoluble in cold water , but when a suspension in water
is heated, the granules swell & eventually gelatinise. • Animals consume large quantities of starch in cereal grains, cereal
byproducts and tubers.
• On the basis of the rates of their in vitro enzymatic digestion, there are three types of starch: • (1) rapidly digested starch (with
high amylopectin content and high digestibility containing 100% amylopectin and 0% amylose), freshly cooked starch, and
white bread; • (2) slowly digested starch (with a certain weight ratio of amylose to amylopectin of, e.g., 45:55 [more amylopectin
than amylose] and low digestibility), such as starch in most raw cereals (dent corn varieties, barley, wheat, and rice), whose
semicrystalline structure renders it less accessible to digestive enzymes; and • (3) resistant starch (with high-amylose content
and limited digestibility), such as high-amylose corn, high-amylose wheat, legumes, and bananas
• In its natural state, tuber and grain starch (e.g., in potatoes) exist in a water-insoluble granular form, which resists digestion in
the small intestine of nonruminants . Such starch-containing foods must be cooked before they can be more effciently utilized
by chickens and pigs. • The cooking of foods markedly aids in their digestion by animals through breaking down (gelatinizing)
and solubilizing starch granules.
DR. RAHUL DANGI

22. 2)GLYCOGEN:
 • This term is used to describe a group of highly branched polysaccharides isolated from animals or
microorganisms. • Glycogen occur in liver (1.5- 4%) , muscles (0.5-1 %) &other tissues. • They are
analogous to amylopectins in structure & have been referred as ‘animal starches’ . • Glycogen is the
main carbohydrate storage product in animal body & plays an essential role in energy metabolism . •
Glycogen can be broken down into it D-glucose by acid hydrolysis or by means of some enzymes that
attack starch. • In animals, the enzyme phosphorylase catalyses the breakdown of glycogen into
phosphate esters of glucose. 42 3)Cellulose:
 ♣ It is the most abundant single polymer in the plant kingdom , forming the fundamental structure of
cell walls.
 ♣ Cotton fiber & filter paper are almost entirely cellulose.
 ♣ Pure cellulose is a homoglycan of high molecular weight in which the repeating unit is cellobiose. Here
the D-glucose residues are β -1,4-linked
 ♣ In plants , cellulose chains are formed in an ordered manner to produce compact aggregates
(microfibrils ) which are held together by both inter- & intra- molecular hydrogen bonding.
DR. RAHUL DANGI

23. 3)CELLULOSE:
 ♣ It is the most abundant single polymer in the plant kingdom , forming
the fundamental structure of cell walls.
 ♣ Cotton fiber & filter paper are almost entirely cellulose.
 ♣ Pure cellulose is a homoglycan of high molecular weight in which the
repeating unit is cellobiose. Here the D-glucose residues are β -1,4-
linked
 ♣ In plants , cellulose chains are formed in an ordered manner to
produce compact aggregates (microfibrils ) which are held together by
both inter- & intra- molecular hydrogen bonding.
DR. RAHUL DANGI

24. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STARCH AND
CELLULOSE
• Starch is glucose connected with alpha bonds
• Cellulose is glucose connected with beta bonds
• Animals do NOT make the enzyme that digests
beta bonds.
• Only bacteria make cellulase
DR. RAHUL DANGI

25. THANK YOU
,
DR. RAHUL DANGI