This document discusses biodiversity in Nepal. It defines biodiversity as the variety of plant and animal life on Earth, and describes it at three levels - species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity. It then provides details on species richness in Nepal, including over 5,800 flowering plants, 185 mammals, and 874 bird species. Threats to Nepal's biodiversity are also summarized, such as poverty, natural disasters, pollution, overgrazing, invasive species, illegal hunting and trade, and fires. The importance of conserving biodiversity is explained in terms of health/medicine, food security, cultural/aesthetic values, and ecological services.

1. Biodiversity & Its Conservation:
Biodiversity is a combination of two words 'biological' and 'diversity'.
Biodiversity refers to the number, variety and variability of all life forms on
earth.
These include millions of plants, animals, and microorganisms, the genes
they contain, and the intricate ecosystems of which they are a part.
Biodiversity is usually described at three levels.
(1)Species Diversity
(2)Genetic Diversity
(3)Ecosystem Diversity
(1)Species Diversity
 It refers to the frequency and variety of species (wild or domesticated)
within a geographical area.
 Each species is distinct from every other species. Lions and Tiger are
distinct species.
 Species diversity is usually measured in terms of the total number of
species within a defined area.
 The total number of species in the world has been estimated to range
from 5 to 30 million, out of which approximately 1.7 million have been
described (WCMC 1992)
(2) Genetic Diversity:
 The diversity (variation) of genes within a species, passed down the
generations is known as genetic biodiversity. E.g. hundreds of
traditional rice varieties in Nepal.
 Some variations are easy to see, such as size or color, some different
such as taste or flavor, can be perceived by other senses, and some
others, such as susceptibility to diseases, are not obvious to the senses.
(3) Ecosystem Diversity:
 An ecosystem is a set of life forms (plants, animals, microorganisms)
interacting with one another and with non-living elements (soil, air,
water, minerals etc).

2.  Ecosystem diversity is, therefore, the diversity of habitats which
include the different life forms within. E.g. Forest, grassland, Wetlands,
Lakes, Oceans etc.
 The term also refers to the variety of ecosystems found within a
biogeographical or political boundary.

3. Biodiversity Status: Nepal
Nepal has a wide, variety of plants and animals as a result of its large
topographical and climate variation.
Nepal falls in the 25th and 11th position in terms of species richness of the
world and continental level respectively.
Nepal’s great variation in topography-altitudes ranging from 60m-8848m
above sea level over a small distance of 190km from south to north has
resulted in a great diversity of climate and vegetation ranging from sub-
tropical to cold desert.
Nepal has been endowed (particular features) with a rich variety of plants
and animals with an area of only 0.03% of the global surface area. Nepal as
hosts some of the most spectacular natural areas in the world.
Nepal possesses over 2% of the world’s flowering plants, about 9% of the
world’s bird species and about 4% of the world’s mammalian species.
Over 400 species of agro-horticultural crops have been reported in Nepal
including 200 species of vegetables of these around 50 species have been
domesticated for commercial and household consumption.
Nepal has 118 types of forest ecosystems spread over 4 physiographic
regions. 181 species of mammals, 185 species of fish, 143 species of reptiles
and amphibians over 5,884 species of flowering plants and about 2,287
species of fungus and lichens. (CBS, 2003)
Total of Animal Species in the world and in Nepal
S.no Group(Life Form) World Number Nepal
1 Number %
2 Mammals 4,675 185 3.96
3 Birds 9,799 874 8.90
4 Herpeto 12,650 196
Amphibians 4,780 118 2.47
Reptiles 7,870 78 0.99
5 Fish 10,000 187 1.87
6 Butterflies 17,500 651 3.72
7 Moths 160,000 785 0.49
8 Spiders 39,490 175 0.44
Source: NBRB, 2007

4. Nepal's share in plant and animal species
Groups World species Nepal Nepal's share
(%)
Algae 40,000 687 1.72
Fungi 70,000 1,822 2.83
Lichen 17,000 471 2.77
Bryophytes 14,000 853 6.09
Pteriodophytes 12,000 383 3.19
Flowering plants 250,000 5,833 2.33
Animals
Fresh water fishes 85,000 185 0.21
Amphibians 4,000 43 1.07
Reptiles 6,500 100 1.53
Birds 9,881 847 8.57
Mammals 4,327 185 4.27
Arthropods/Insects 1,000000 5052 0.44
Butterfly N.K 656 N.K
Moths N.K 789 N.K
Spiders N.K 144 N.K
Source: DPR (1996) (Department of Plant Resource)
MOPE (2000); Thapa (1997)
Ecosystems in Protected Areas
Zone Altitude (m) No. of ecosystems
Terai <500 10
Siwalik 500-1000 13
Middle Hill 1001-3000 52
Highland >3001 38
Others 5
Total 118

5. Endemic species in Nepal:
Altogether 342 plant species and 160 animal species have been reported as
being endemic to Nepal.
GROUP NO. OF SPECIES
FLORA
Lichens 39
Fungi 16
Algae 3
Bryophytes 30
Pteridophytes 8
Angiosperms 246
Total 342
FAUNA
Spiders 108
Butterflies & Moths 30
Fishes 8
Amphibians & Reptiles 11
Birds (Spiny babbler* & Nepal kaliz) 2
Mammals (Himalayan Field Mouse) 1
Total 160
* Six mountain PAs
3 Conservation Area
Khaptad, Makalu –Barun, Shivapuri, & Bardia
Source: Nepal Biodiversity Strategy, 2002

6. Alien Species of Nepal:
Scientific name Common name Origin
Ageratum conyzoides Mexico
Eichhornia crassipes S. America
Eupatorium adenophorum West Indies
Eupatorium odoratum Jamica & Mexico
Grevillea robusta Australia
Lantana camara Trop. America
Mimosa pudica S. America
Plantago spp. N.America
Miakania micrantha
Sources: De Bach (1964), Das (1982), Islam (1991), Richardson (1998), Hossain and Pasha (2001)

7. Protected Species of Nepal:
MAMMALS
S.N SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME LOCAL NAME
1. Macaca assamensis Assamese monkey Assamis rato bandar
2. Manis pentadactyla Indian pangolin Salak
3. Caprolagus hispidus Hispid hare Hispid kharayo
4. Canis lupus Wolf Bwanso
5. Ursus arctos Himalayan Bear Himali rato bhalu
6. Ailurus fulgens Red panda Habre
7. Prionodon pardicolor Spotted linsang Silu
8. Felis bengalensia Leopard cat Chari bagh
9. Felis lynx Lynx Lynx
10. Neofelis nebulosa Clouded leopard Dwanse chituwa
11. Panthera tigris Tiger Bagh
12. Panthere uncial Snow leopard Hinu chituwa
13. Elephas maximus Asiatic elephant Hatti
14. Rhiniceros unicornis Rhinoceros Gainda
15. Sus salvanius Pygmi hog Pudke Bandel
16. Moschus moschiferos Musk deer Kasturi mirga
17. Cervus duvauceli Swamp deer Barhasingha
18. Bos gaurus Gaur Gauri gai
19. Bos grunniens Wild yak Yak
20. Bubalus bubalis Wild buffalo Arna
21. Ovis ammon Great tibetan sheep Nayan
22. Pantholops hodgsoni Tibetan antilope Chiru
23. Antilope cervicapra Black buck Krisnasar
24. Tetraceros quadricornis Four horned antilope Chauka
25. Hyaena hyaena Striped hynae Hundar
26. Platanistagangetica Gangetic dolphin Shons

8. BIRDS
S.N SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME LOCAL NAME
1. Catreus wallichii Chir pheasant Kalij
2. Lophophorus impeyanus Impeyan pheasant Danfe
3. Tragopan satyra Crimson horned pheasant Monal
4. Ciconia ciconia White stork Seto sarus
5. Eupodotis bengalensis Bengal florican Khar major
6. Sypheotides indica Lesser florican Sano khar major
7. Grus grus Sarus crane Sarus
8. Buceros bicornis Giant hornbill Thulo dhanesh
9. Ciconia nigra Black stork Kalo sarus
REPTILES
S.N SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME LOCAL NAME
1. Gavialis gangeticus Ghariyal Gharial gohi
2. Python spp. Python Ajingar
3. Varanus flavescens Monitor lizard Sun gohoro

9. Importance of Biodiversity:
The earth has an enormous variety of plants and animals, both domesticated
and wild, as also variety of ecosystems. This diversity meets the food,
medicinal, clothing, shelter, and recreational needs of millions of people
around the world. It also insures that ecological functions such as the supply
of clean water, nutrient cycling and soil protection and maintained. In fact,
biodiversity loss would mean threat to the survival of the human race.
(1) Health and Healing:
Up to 80% of the people in developing countries depend for primary health
care on traditional medicine, most of which is derived from plants, and some
from animals and mineral sources.
It is not just traditional medicines that are derived from biotic resources.
Nearly one-fourth of all prescription drugs used in the developed world are
based on plants.
Some natural medicine products are:
Product/Drug Source Use
Penicillin Fungus Antibiotic
Tetracycline Bacterium Antibiotic
Erythromycin Bacterium Antibiotic
Quinine Cinchona tree Malaria treatment
Reserpine Rauvolfia Hypertension drug
Beevenome Bee Arthritis relief
Morphine Poppy Analgesic
Digitalis Fox glove Heart failure
Aspirin Filipendulaulmaria Reduces pain &inflammation
Codein Opium poppy Supresses coughing
Pseudoephedrine Ephedra sinica Reduces nasal congestion
(2) Food Security:
Biodiversity is critical for agriculture. About 90% of the world's food comes
from 20 plant species.
Birds, Mammals, Fishes are used as food by human as a protein source.
(3) Aesthetic value:
Each species and ecosystem adds to the richness and beauty of life on earth.

10. E.g. the sound of singing birds, the sight of leaping deer.
(4) Religious and Cultural value:
In Nepal, many plants and animals are associated with religious and cultural
uses. E.g. use of hibiscus flower for various god, some of animal species are
believed to be the Vahans or vehicles of the god, such as bull of shiva, the rat
of Ganesh, and the lion of Durga.
(5) Ecological Services:
Every species has its own role in ecosystem. Destroying of one species can
lead to further extinctions or change.
Specific life forms present in a particular habitat help to create conditions for
other life forms to live in that environment. For example, a single tree
provides not only its products, which may have economic value, but it is also
a habitat for innumerable living things. In addition, it also plays a vital role in
conserving soil and water and helping to keep air clean.
Examples of Ecological service includes Photosynthesis, pollination of crops
and other plants, soil formation and maintenance, nutrient cycling, pest
control, climate regulation, flood control, waste decomposition, absorption
and detoxification of pollutants, and clean air and water.

11. Loss of Biodiversity:
(Challenges to the preservation of Biodiversity)
(A) Socio-Economic cause:
 Nepal is one of the least developed countries of the world. With an
estimated annual per capita income of US$ 740(………).
 Open natural resources such as land and forests are the main sources of
livelihood for a large proportion of this population.
 Poverty is intimately related to environmental degradation and loss of
biodiversity. They depend on their own direct exploitation of natural
resources.
 Poor people have no choice but to engage in unsustainable uses of
natural resources, and Nepal is no exception.
 A large number of poor families have small farms; most of the people
in these groups collect and sell forest products to survive from one day
to next.
 In efforts to increase production, poor farmers expand cultivation into
highlands that are not suitable for agriculture. The result is accelerated
soil erosion, land degradation, declining productivity of farm land and
sedimentation in down stream areas.
(B) Natural Causes:
 Landslides in the hilly regions not only damage the landscape but often
cause loss of life and property. 75% of the landslides in Nepal occur
naturally (MOPE, 1998). Landslides mainly occur during the monsoon
(June-Sept.) when top soil gets soaked with rain water.
 Top soil erosion has been one of the factors contributions to declining
plant productivity and loss of biodiversity.
(C) Anthropogenic cause:
1) Environmental Pollution :
 Toxic substances and other pollutants affect biodiversity at the
ecosystem level by disturbing vital ecological processes and modifying
the species composition of plant and animal communities.

12.  On a local and regional scale, significant populations of lichens,
bryophytes, algae and fresh water life particularly fish have been
eliminated, and air pollutants pose a serious threat many birds and
mammals.
2) Overgrazing:
 Uncontrolled overgrazing by livestock directly affects the species
composition and productivity of the grassland vegetation.
 Due to relative preferences for different plant species, overgrazing
allows an increase in the population of those species undesirable or
unpalatable to the grazing animals.
 Overgrazing also causes changes in the diversity of the fauna. The loss
of grass cover reduces insect populations, which in turn changes the
bird life.
 Reasons for Overgrazing in Nepal include too many animals on limited
grazing land (more cattle than the land's carrying capacity), and pasture
management.
3) Introduction of alien species:
 The introduction of non-native species (also known as invasive, alien or
exotic species), deliberately or accidentally, has been a major threat to
biological diversity world wide.
 The introduced animal and plants pose a threat to local species of fauna
and flora. For example Eupatorium adenophorum, Lantana camera,
Mikania micrantha, Bidens pilosa etc are well established exotic
species of Nepal which are so common that they have changed the
species composition of native species both of fallow and cultivated
lands.
 The introduction of Eucalyptus, Pinus and Populus species has also
affected the composition of Nepal's biodiversity.
4) Illegal Trade and Hunting:
 Control of illegal trade in plant and animal species, their parts or
products, is a world wide concern these days.

13.  The illegal trade is directly correlated with demographic factors,
potentials for profit, and lack of adequate resources for law
enforcement.
 Reports of illegal hunting from some parts of Nepal are common.
Poaching of wildlife and illegal collection of rare and endangered plant
species has always been serious problem in and outside Protected area
in Nepal.
 Fish stocks are over-exploited from the rivers, dolphins, pheasants and
ungulates are hunted for their meat and carnivores are hunted for their
bones.
 Sloth and Himalayan bear gall bladder, rhinoceros horns, and tiger
bones are smuggled out of Nepal.
 High price for gall bladder, rhinoceros horns and tiger bones on the
international market encourages poaching of these species.
Estimated price of Rhino Horn in Illegal Market
Nepal: Rs6,00,000-800,000 per kg
International Market: $30,000 per kg
 Similarly, the growing demand for certain endangered plants like Panch
aule, and Yarsa gumba on the domestic and international market has
created a serious threat to these plant species.
5) Fire:
 In several habitats, fire plays a crucial role in the health of
ecosystem and in maintaining their biological diversity.
 Very few fires are naturally caused in Nepal. Karkee (1991) found
that 40% of forest fires in the Mid-hills are started by accident and
60% are started deliberately. Accidental causes include carelessness
with cigrattetes and matches, fires which are set to clear for
cultivation and which then burn out of control, fires set to smoke out
wild bees when collecting honey and which go out of control etc.
 Fires are also set deliberately in forests to kill trees so that the dead
wood can then be collected and used for fire wood, to induce new
grass growth for cattle grazing, to clear land for farming, and for
hunting.

14. Biodiversity Conservation:
Despite several problems, Nepal has achieved some significant successes in
the protection and management of its biodiversity.
Several measures are being taken at the national level to protect biodiversity.
(1) In-situ Conservation (Establishment of Protected Areas):
-Conservation of individuals, species or habitat within their natural
habitat.
IUCN the world conservation union defines protected areas as "an area of
land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of
biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources,
managed through legal or other effective means".
 This is an effective conservation strategy since it insures the
maintenance of ecosystem and species in their natural conditions.
 It was only after the 1960s that an effective conservation programme
allowed for the establishment of protected areas. Now, the protected
areas in Nepal include 12 National parks, 1 Wildlife reserve, 1 Hunting
reserve and 6 Conservation areas and eleven buffer zones covering an
area of …………..sq. km that is 23.23% of the total area of the country.
 Protected areas were initially established in Nepal for the protection of
wildlife, especially endangered wild life. However, the objectives have
since been broadened to include the preservation of natural, historic,
scenic, and cultural values.

15. Protected Area of Nepal:
S.N. Category Year of
Estd.
Area
(Km2
)
Altitude
(m)
(A) National Parks
1 Chitwan National Park 1973 932 150-815
2 Langtang National park 1976 1,710 792-7,245
3 Rara National Park 1976 106 1800-4,048
4 Sagarmatha National park 1976 1,148 2,800-8,850
5 Shey Phoksundo National park 1984 3,555 2,000-6,885
6 Khaptad National park 1984 225 1,000-3,276
7 Bardia National Park 1984 968 152-1,494
8 Makalu Barun National Park 1991 1,500 435-8,463
9 Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park 2002 159
10 Banke National Park
11 Parsa National Park
12 Royal Suklaphanta National Park
Total
(B) Wildlife Reserve (W.R.)
1 Koshi Tappu W.R 1976 90
Total
(C) Hunting Reserve (H.R)
1 Dhorpatan H.R 1987 2,850-7,000
Total
(D) Conservation Area (CA)
1 Kanchenjunga CA 1997 1,200-8,598
2 Manaslu CA 1998 1,360-8,163
3 Annapurna CA 1992 1,000-8,092
4 Gauri Shanker CA (Ramechhap,
Dolakha, Sindhupalchwok)
2009
5 Api Nampa
6 Blackbuck Conservation area
Total

16. Buffer Zone of Nepal:
SN Buffer Zone Year
Area (sq.
km.) District VDCs
House
holds Population
1 Chitwan NP 1996 750 4 37 36193 223260
2 Bardia NP 1996 327 2 17 11504 120000
3 Langang NP 1998 420 3 34 12509 54326
4 Shey Phoksundo NP 1998 1349 2 11 2263 11598
5 Makalu Barun NP 1999 830 2 12 6000 32000
6 Sagarmatha NP 2000 275 1 3 1288 5896
7 Suklaphanta WR 2004 243.5 1 12 17006 100953
8 Koshi Tappu WR 2004 173 3 16 10693 77950
9 Parsa WR 2005 298.17 3 11 7228 43238
10 Rara NP 2006 198 2 9 1898 11685
11 Khaptad NP 2006 216 4 21 5311 33272
Total 5079.67 27 183 111893 714178
A buffer zone is a designated area surrounding a national park or a reserve
within which the use of forest products by local people is regulated to ensure
sustainability.
Buffer zones are areas in and around national parks and wildlife reserves
created to lessen biotic pressure and for the sustainable management of
natural resources.
The creation of buffer zones is aimed at motivating local communities in the
participatory management of forest resources to fulfill their needs of forest
products through the User Groups.
The government has made provisions to be retained 30 to 50 percent of the
revenues earned by the respective parks to community development activities
such as skill development and income generating programs to improve their
living condition and, health and sanitation as well as and non-formal
education, to generate awareness.
The long-term objective is to gradually involve the local people in nature and
wildlife conservation.

17. (2) Ex-situ Conservation:
Ex-situ conservation refers to the conservation of biodiversity outside of their
natural habitats whose survival is imperiled.
Emphasized is given to establishing new Botanical gardens, Zoos, Gene
banks, etc. in different eco-region.
Botanical Garden:
Botanical gardens are established and managed under the Department of
Plant Resources in various ecological locations of the country. The botanical
gardens conduct landscape development, as well as conservation with
educational programmes. The Central Botanical Garden (82 ha) is located at
Godavari (1515m) in the south-east corner of Kathmandu Valley, at the base
of the Phulchoki Hill (2715m).
Other botanical gardens in the country by location, altitude, and year of
establishment are:
1. Maipokhari Botanical Garden, Ilam, 2200m (1992)
2. Dhanusha Botanical Garden, Dhanushadham, Dhanusha, 100m (1998)
3. Vrindaban Botanical Garden, Hetauda, Makawanpur, 500m (1962)
4. Daman Botanical Garden, Daman Makawanpur, 2140m (1962)
5. Tistung Botanical Garden, Tistung, Makawanpur, 1700m (1962)
6. Dhakeri Botanical Garden, Banke, 130m (1962)
7. Mulpani Botanical Garden, Kapurkot, Salyan, 2000m (1990)
8. Dhitachor Botanical Garden, Jumla, 2500m (1990)
9. Godavari Botanical Garden, Godavari, Kailali (1998)
10. Deoria Botanical Garden, Dhangadhi, Kailali , 100m (1998)
Central Zoo:
The Central Zoo (6.5 ha) houses 119 species of 970 animals including 206
mammals of 33 species, 321 birds of 60 species, 424 fish of 17 species, and
19 reptiles of nine species.
Of the mammals, five exotic species are the Guinea pig (Cavia aperea),
Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious), Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca
silenus), Siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus), and White mice (Mus
musculus).
Successful results of captive breeding of species such as tigers, leopards,
Rhino, and other animals has distinguished the zoo as a source of gene pool

18. and for some ungulate species such as the Blackbuck, Barking deer, and
Spotted deer.
Several translocations of these animals have been carried out to initiate
establishment of new populations in Bardia National Park and Pashupati
areas. (Nepal Biodiversity Resource book, 2007)
(3) Establishment of Species Conservation Project:
(i) Gharial Breeding Project (Captive Breeding and Translocation):
 Captive breeding of Crocodiles has been carried out successfully in the
Gharial Farm at Chitwan.
 Although the population of gharial crocodiles was close to extinction,
the breeding effort has revived its population.
 Gharial breeding centre was established in 1978 at Kasara in Chitwan.
 By 2005, 661 captive bred gharials have been released into the various
rivers of Nepal such as Narayani, Kaligandaki, Rapti, Koshi, Karnali,
Babai.
Gharial Crocodile Release to their Natural Environment
Year Narayani Kali Rapti/Tamor Koshi Karnali Babai Total
1981-1989 183 35 5 85 - - 308
1990-1999 139 - 12 - 23 - 224
2000-2005 63 10 56 - - - 129
Total 385 45 73 85 23 50 661
2006-2008 35 - 61 - - - 96
Total 757
DNPWC annual Report 2004-2005, DNPWC annual Report 2007-2008
Gharial breeding at Kasara (photo:Kishor Maharjan)

19. (ii) Rhino Translocation Program:
Translocation of rhinoceros has been carried out with the objectives of
 Establishing a viable rhino population in Bardia National Park (BNP), and
Shuklaphanta wildlife reserve.
 To safeguard this endangered species
 To reduce the intraspecific competition,
 Possible threat of extinction of a single isolated population (poaching and
natural calamities such as floods, fire and epidemics).
Since 1986, a total of 87 rhinos have been translocated to BNP from CNP and
4 have been translocated to Shuklaphanta wildlife reserve (upto 2003).
Rhino Translocations
Year Male Female Total Translocations
1986 8 5 13 Chitwan to Bardia
1991 8 17 25 Chitwan to Bardia
1999 2 0 2 Chitwan to Bardia
1999 2 0 2 Sarlahi to Bardia
2000 8 8 16 Chitwan to Bardia
2000 1 3 4 Chiwan to Shuklaphanta
2001 2 3 5 Chitwan to Bardia
2002 5 5 10 Chitwan to Bardia
2003 3 7 10 Chitwan to Bardia
Total 39 48 87
Source DNPWC AnnualReport 2002-2003
(III) OTHER CONSERVATION PROJECTS ARE:
(a) Elephant Breeding Project
The Elephant Breeding Centre at Khorsor, Chitwan, and the elephant stables
in Shuklaphanta, Bardia, Chitwan, Parsa, and Koshi-Tappu are noteworthy
for elephant breeding.

20. Elephant Breeding Centre (EBC) at Khorsor, Chitwan:
Established in 1985, with an objective of producing trained elephants to meet
requirement of elephants for research and tourism.
This breeding programme began with 20 elephants out of which 16
individuals were received from Government of India, 4 were gifted (2 from
the Government of Myanmar and 2 from Thailand)
Nineteen calves have been reproduced at EBC and survival rate was found to
be 59.6% (Gopali B.R.Y,2006)
Elephant Breeding Centre, Khorsor, Chiwan (photo: Kishor Maharjan)
b) Vulture Breeding Project
To prevent the extinction of vulture species by ensuring re-introduction, safe
food supply, maintenance of suitable habitat and better understanding of the
ecological importance of these birds in Nepal.
(4) Acts, Regulations and Policies related to Biodiversity Conservation:
 National Parks and wildlife conservation act, 1973
(2029BS)-NPWCA
(First Amendment 1974, Second Amendment, 1983, Third Amendment
1990, Fourth Amendment 1993, and Fifth Amendment 2005)
 Aquatic Animal Protection Act, 1961
 Plant protection Act 1964

21.  National Trust for Nature conservation Act 1982
 Forest Act, 1993 (amended 1999) and Forest Regulation, 1995
 Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan, 1993, 1998
 Buffer zone management regulation, 1996
 National Conservation Strategy, 1998
 Wildlife Farming policy 2003
 National Wetland policy 2003
 Handover of the management of protected areas 2003
(5) Conservation Action Plans:
 Tiger Conservation Action Plan (2008-2012)
 Elephant Conservation Action plan (2009-2018)
 Vulture conservation Action plan (2009-2013)
(6) Increasing Conservation Awareness:
Biodiversity conservation demands public support and participation. An
understanding and appreciation of the importance of conservation and
sustainable use of biological resources is therefore crucial.
For this conservation awareness campaigns has been promoted through
different media such as radio, newspaper, posters, workshops, seminars, and
school curricula so that both managers and users of natural resources
understand the linkages between conservation and sustainable use.
(7) Ratification of International Conventions related to Biodiversity
conservation:
International Conservation Strategies:
Conserving biodiversity is not an issue confined to any one country. This is a
crucial global concern because what happens to the biodiversity of one
country affects another. The forests of one country may help in decreasing
the effects of global warming.
(1) The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):

22.  This convention was signed during the United Nation Conference on
Environment and Development (Earth summit) in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil in 1992.
 It focuses not only on conserving biodiversity but also on the
sustainable use of biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits
arising from its use.
 By signing this convention, member countries are committed to several
activities including developing strategies for biodiversity conservation
and sustainable use and incorporating biodiversity issue into national
plans, programmes and policies.
 This is by far the most important convention for the conservation of
biodiversity at national and international levels.
(2) The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES):
 This convention is an international treaty which is designed to protect
wild plants and animals affected by international trade.
 Nepal became party to CITES in 1975.
 It controls export and import of endangered and threatened wild life.
CITES Appendices
1. Appendix I shall include all species threatened with extinction, which are
or may be affected by trade. Trade in specimens of these species must be
subject to particularly strict regulation in order not to endanger further their
survival and must only be authorized in exceptional circumstances.
2. Appendix II shall include:
All species which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction
may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict
regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival; and
3. Appendix III shall include all species which any Party identifies as being
subject to regulation within its jurisdiction for the purpose of preventing or
restricting exploitation, and as needing the cooperation of other Parties in the
control of trade.

23. The Parties shall not allow trade in specimens of species included in Appendices I,
II and III except in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention.
(3) The convention on Wetlands of International Importance:
 This convention is also known as the Ramsar convention, was signed in
Ramsar (Iran) in 1971 and came into force in 1975.
 This international convention designed to protect the wetland
ecosystems from further destruction.
 It also calls on all signatories to conserve wetlands, promote their
sustainable utilization, and set aside special areas as wild life reserve.
 Every country is required to designate at least one wetland for inclusion
on the list of wetlands.
 Government of Nepal, ratified (to make an agreement by officially) the
Ramsar Convention in 1987, and designated Koshi Tappu Wild life
Reserve for inclusion in the list of Ramsar sites. Koshi Tappu is an
important habitat for Nepal's last surviving population of wild buffalo.
 List of other Ramsar site (2003) includes: Ghodaghodi Tal (Kailali),
Jagadispur Reservoir (Kapilbustu), Beeshazar Tal (Chitwan)

24. Strategy of Protecting of Biodiversity:
Despite several problems, Nepal has achieved some significant successes in
the protection and management of its biodiversity.
Several measures are being taken at the national level to protect biodiversity.
(1) Landscape Planning approach:
 Aim to conserve forests, soil, water and biological diversity while at the
same time meeting the basic needs of people who are dependent on
these resources for their livelihoods.
 to protect and manage biodiversity on a sustainable, long term basis
 Declaring buffer zones around national parks and reserves.
(2) Integrating local participation:
It has been realized that conservation programmes will work only if the basic
needs of local people are met which include being able to grow enough food,
effective health care, and basic education. Once these basic needs are met,
local people may responsive to conservation.
To enhance responsiveness and promote ownership of conservation
programmes by communities, the active involvement of local people will be
sought in conservation management systems.
(3) In-situ Conservation:
 The most important means of protecting biodiversity is to conserve
natural habitats that maintain and allow the recovery of viable
population of species naturally.
 It also addresses the restoration of degraded ecosystems, both within
and out side protected area, and its prevention, control and eradication
of alien species that threaten ecosystems.

25.  This is an effective conservation strategy since it insures the
maintenance of ecosystem and species in their natural conditions.
 The importance of conserving wild species of fauna and flora was first
recognized by GON in Nepal's first Five –Year Development plan
(1956-1961). The Rhino Patrol, established in 1961 as a result of this
first plan, was fairly successful in controlling the poaching of large
mammals.
 It was only after the 1960s that an effective conservation Programme
allowed for the establishment of protected areas. So far, (12 national
parks, 1 wild life reserve, 6 conservation areas, and 1 hunting reserve
have been established in the three different ecological zones of Nepal:
The Terai. Mid-hills and High Mountains.
 Protected areas were initially established in Nepal for the protection of
wildlife, especially endangered wild life. However, the objectives have
since been broadened to include the preservation of natural, historic,
scenic, and cultural values.
 According to estimates, an area of …………. sq. km that is ……..% of
the total area of the country is declared as protected.
(4) Ex-situ Conservation:
Ex-situ conservation refers to the conservation of components of biodiversity
outside of their natural habitats, particularly animal, and plant species, whose
existence in their natural habitat is below the minimum viable population and
whose survival is imperiled.
Emphasized is given to establishing new Botanical gardens, Zoos, Gene
banks, etc. in different eco-region.
(5) Enhancing National capacity:
Biological research and conservation management cannot effectively take
place without adequately trained human resources. Realizing this, priority is
given to institution building, human capacity building to conserve and utilize
components of biodiversity.
(6) Increasing Support for Biodiversity Research and Conservation

26. Large amount of financial resources will be needed for biodiversity
conservation. A high priority is given to increasing financial and technical
support for biodiversity research and conservation.
(7) Environmental Impact Assessment:
The Environmental Impact Protection Act, 1996, and environment Protection
Regulations, 1997, obligate GON to undertake environmental impact
assessment of its proposed projects that are likely to have significant impacts
on biodiversity with a view to avoiding or minimizing such impacts.
Emphasis is given to ensure effective implementation of existing rules and
regulations regarding environmental impact assessment.
(8) Building on Indigenous Knowledge:
The lives of several rural communities are closely interwoven with their
environment as they dependent upon their immediate resources for their
needs. These communities have a vast and rich bank of knowledge about
local flora and fauna, which is very important for biodiversity conservation.
Much of this knowledge is passed on orally from generation to generation.
Such indigenous knowledge needs to be recorded and preserved before it is
lost. Several organizations have recognized this and are working to record
the knowledge and preserve it for posterity.
(9) Women in Biodiversity Conservation:
The vital contribution of women to the management of biological resources
and to economic production has been misunderstood, ignored or
underestimated. Rural women in Nepal are often the most knowledgeable
about the patterns and uses of local biodiversity. Therefore, the role of
women in biodiversity and natural resource management will be fully
recognized and given their due consideration and their participation in
decision-making will be sought.
(10) Increasing Conservation Awareness:
Biodiversity conservation demands public support and participation. An
understanding and appreciation of the importance of conservation and

27. sustainable use of biological resources is therefore crucial. For this
conservation awareness campaigns will be promoted through different media
such as radio, newspaper, posters, workshops, seminars, and school curricula
so that both managers and users of natural resources understand the linkages
between conservation and sustainable use.
(11) Developing Eco-tourism:
Tourism in Nepal is concentrated mainly in a few protected areas (Chitwan
National Park, Annapurna conservation area, Sagarmatha N.P., and Langtang
National park), which intensifies negative environmental impacts in these
protected areas. The potential for developing sustainable tourism in other
protected areas as well as other areas of natural and cultural heritage will
therefore be explored and promoted. Efforts will be also be made to seek
maximum involvement of local people in promoting sustainable tourism.
(12) Biodiversity Registration:
It aims to document the rich traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples,
share local knowledge of bio resources with other communities in the
country and abroad for mutual benefit, and conserve local traditional
knowledge for the sustainable utilization and equitable sharing of the benefits
of natural resources through the active support and participation of local
communities.

28. The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (NPWCA) 1973:
The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (NPWCA) 1973 and its
ten associated regulations are the principal legal instruments that govern the
management of Nepal’s protected areas.
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act
Ten associated regulations of NPWCA are
(1) Elephant Management Regulations 1966
(2) National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Regulations 1974 (First Amendment
1975, Second Amendment 1978, and Third Amendment 1985)
(3) Chitwan National Park Regulations 1974 (First Amendment 1990)
(4) Wildlife Reserves Regulations 1978 (First Amendment 1985)
(5) Himalayan National Parks Regulations 1980
(6) Khaptad National Park Regulations 1988
(7) Buffer Zone Regulations 1996
(8) Bardia National Park Regulations 1997
(9) Conservation Area Regulations 1997
(10) Conservation Area Government Regulations 1997
Section 3 of the NPWCA prohibits hunting of animals or birds, building any
house, hut, or structure, clearing or cultivation on any part of the land, or
harvesting any crops, cutting, burning, or damaging any tree, bush, or other
forest product, and mining within national parks or protected areas.
The Act provides complete protection to 27 species of mammals, nine
species of birds, and three species of reptiles.
The NPWC Act recognizes 6 categories of Protected area in Nepal, namely
National park, Wildlife Reserve, Hunting reserve, Conservation Area, Strict
nature reserve and Buffer zone.
Since its promulgation in 1973, five amendments have been made to this Act.
Four amendments were made effective 1993. The Fifth Amendment in 2005

29. accommodated the provision handing over management responsibility for the
protected areas to organizations established under the Act.
Three regulations formulated after 1996 mainly reflect upon government
policy involving local communities in the management of protected areas.
Acts and regulations pertinent to forests, watersheds, the environment,
livestock, self- governance, and tourism are equally significant for the
conservation of flora and fauna.
Policy:
The government recently formulated four main policies pertaining to
biodiversity conservation. They are,
(1) The Working Procedure for the Implementation of the Policy with
Regard to the Handover of the Management of National Parks, Wildlife
Reserves and Conservation Areas to Non-governmental Organisations or
Other Organisations;
(2) The Domesticated Elephant Management Policy 2003;
(3) The Working Policy on Wildlife Farming, Breeding and Research 2003;
and the National Wetland Policy of Nepal 2003.
The ‘Working Procedure for the Implementation of the Policy with Regard to
the Handover of the Management of National Parks, Wildlife Reserves
and Conservation Areas for Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO) or Other
Organisations’ was approved by the government on 15 August 2003.
The objective of the guideline was to enable NGOs and other organisations
to manage national parks, wildlife reserves, and protected areas. Among the
unchangeable conditions was that the fundamental principles of protected
areas would be ensured.
The Domesticated Elephant Management Policy 2003, approved by the
government on 16 September 2003, aimed to maximise economic and
environmental benefits through proper management of domesticated
elephants.
The policy highlights the need for elephant breeding, domestication of wild
elephants, and appropriate integration with ecotourism activities.

30. The ‘Working Policy on Wildlife Farming, Breeding and Research
2003’, approved by the government on 28 August 2003, was designed to
implement policies that improve the living conditions of women, the poor,
and disadvantaged sections of the society through conservation of
biodiversity.
The policy permits commercial farming of wild animal species including
those protected under the law.
Apart from wildlife farming, Nepal has recognised that both domesticated
and cultivated livestock species are an important component of biological
diversity.
The primary goal of the National Wetland Policy of Nepal 2003 is to
conserve and manage wetland resources with local community participation
in a judicious and sustainable manner.
The policy addresses various aspects of wetlands, including identification
and classification of wetlands; prevention and control of invasive plant
species; identification and promotion of local indigenous knowledge; and
mobilisation of local communities including women.
Buffer Zone Management Regulations, 1996 and Buffer Zone
Management Guideline, 1999
(The NPWC act was amended to incorporate provision for conservation areas
and buffer zones)
The Buffer zone Management and Guidelines were approved to design the
programmes compatible with the national park management and to facilitate
public participation in the conservation, design and management of the
buffer zones.
The amended NPWC Act makes provisions for 30-50% of the park (or
reserve) revenues to be retained for community development activities in the
buffer zone. The revenue is disbursed through buffer zone management
committee and user committee.

31. Biotechnology and Biodiversity:
Biotechnology encompasses a wide array of specialized disciplines right
from age old fermentation processes to the latest techniques of genetic
engineering.
Genetic engineering is the fundamental basis for the modern biotechnology. It involves
the ability to transfer specific genes from one kind of organism to another thereby
producing new biological property.
Man has used biotechnology for thousands of years in such activities as wine
making, brewing, food preservation, and processing by fermentation
(eg.vinegar, cheese) and waste treatment etc.
Biotechnology has received tremendous attention in recent years due to its
immense potentialities and applications in aquaculture, agriculture, forestry,
pollution control etc.
Bioremediation:
Bioremediation is the use of living organisms (primarily microorganisms) to
degrade environmental pollutants or to prevent pollution through waste
treatment.
Bioremediation is emerging as most ideal alternative technology for
removing pollutants from environment, restoring contaminated sites, and
preventing further pollution.
This environment friendly technology is expanding range of organisms to be
used to clean up pollution, and forms a vital component of the so-called
green movement of maintaining the nature's overall ecological balance.
Environmental Applications of Bioremediation:
1. Biogas (energy) from solid wastes:
The systems treat source-separated plant residue and paper from municipal
waste. In such process, both anaerobic and aerobic microbes can be used.

32. Some microbial degradation or transformation occurs in the absence of
oxygen, and such a process could be important in environmental
biotechnology.
Under anaerobic condition, microorganisms growing on wastes can produce
valuable fuels. This anaerobic composting process converts the organic
fraction of biodegradable organic solid waste into energy in the form of
biogas (methane and carbon-dioxide) and a humus-like material. The biogas
is produced by anaerobic bacteria that include methanogens.
The first phase of treatment, anaerobic digestion takes place in a large tank
lasting for about three weeks. The digested material then moves for aerobic
maturation (E.M.) which takes about 2 weeks.
Gas tank
Biogas
Pump
Treatment facility of municipal waste by using both, anaerobic and aerobic
microorganism
(2) Removal of Inorganic compounds:
Some waste water system, originally designed only to remove organic
compounds from water aerobically to reduce BOD, have been modified to
include anaerobic zones to remove inorganic compounds as well.
Digester
(Anaerobic)
Aerobic
Maturation

33. Such system that removes nitrate from water has been tested at the municipal
water treatment facility in Blankaart, Belgium).
At Blankaart, the nitrate concentration was reduced fro 75.0 mg/liter to 0.1
mg/lit when the water was passed through bioreactor.
The reactor contains the methylotrophic bacteria, such as Methylophilus
methylotrophus that carry denitrification. Methanol is the first added to
bioreactor to support the growth of methylotrophs. The bacteria convert
nitrate to nitrite and then to molecular nitrogen, which is released into
atmosphere.
The removal of nitrate from waste water helps prevent eutrophication of the
water ways receiving the treated water.
(3) Removal of toxic chemicals from industrial wastewater:
Bacteria like Pseudomonas cepacia are able to biodegrade chlorinated
hydrocarbons present in the effluents of pesticides industries manufacturing
DDT, heptachlor, chlordane etc.
(4) Removal of Organic matter from domestic sewage:
(Activated sludge process)
The waste water and sewage that received primary treatment, is mixed with
activated sludge (an inoculum of microorganisms) and continuously aerated
with oxygen for about 15 hrs.
Activated sludge is solid or semisolid sediment derived from the settlement
of particulate matter in waste waters. It comprises of a complex mixture of
microbes present in the sewage. When dry it forms a dark colored powder,
one gram of which may contains as many as 1014 bacteria.
The microbes present in activated sludge rapidly decompose most of the
organic matter present in water and thus removing from the waste water.
(5)Treatment of Heavy metal Polluted sites:
Bioremediation can be used to treat sites contaminated with heavy metals or
radionuclides.
Microbes such as algae, bacteria and fungi as well as higher plants have
capabilities to uptake these pollutants. After uptake, these either accumulate

34. or are assimilated by them. Accumulated heavy metals are recovered for
recycling or disposal.
For example, Zooglea ramigera adsorbs copper and cadmium up to the levels
of 300 and 100 mg metal per g dry wt. respectively.
Pseudomonas putida, Arthrobacter viscous and Citrobacter spp remove
several toxic heavy metals from industrial effluents.
Radioactive metals as uranium and thorium are removed by Rhizopus
arrhizus and penicillium chrysogenum can accumulate radium.
Phytoremediation -Biotechnology of Cleaning Up the Environment by
Plants
(Use of Plants in Bioremediation)
The process of recovery of hazardous substance from soil or ground water
contaminated with municipal or industrial wastes etc. by using plants is
called Phytoremediation.
Green plants are not only the lungs of nature with unique ability of purifying
impure air by photosynthesis releasing oxygen to sustain aerobic life in the
biosphere, but they could also be very useful in cleaning up the hazardous
waste sites.
Among plants, some aquatic weeds such as Salvinia, Lemna, Azolla,
Eichhornia and even terrestrial species such as Indian mustard, sunflower,
Alyssum etc are known to tolerate, uptake and even accumulate heavy metals
(such as Pb, Fe, Cu, Cd, Hg, and Ni and other toxicants in their cells.
Vetiver plants
Vermicomposting