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Reading Materials…….
By: Prakash Singh Thapa, MSc. Forestry, IOF Pokhara. 1
Protected wild fauna of Nepal
S.N. Nepali name English name Scientific name
1 Arna Wild water buffalo Bubalus bubalis.
2 Assame Bandar Assamese monkey Macaca assamensis
3 Ek singhe Gainda One horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis
4 Kasturi mriga Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogasters
5 Krishnasar Black buck Antelope cervicarpa
6 Gauri gai Gaur Bos gaurus
7 Chari bagh Leopard cat Felis bengalensis
8 Chouka Four horned antelope Tetracerus quadricornis
9 Chiru Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsoni
10 Jangali hatti Asiatic wild elephant Elephas maximus
11 Jangali yak Wild yak Bos mutus
12 Dhawnse chituwa Clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa
13 Nayan Tibetan sheep Ovis ammon hodgsonii
14 Nir biralo Spotted lingsang Prindon pardicolor
15 Pate bagh Royal Bengal tiger Panthera tigris
16 Bahrasinghe Swamp deer Cervus duvaucelli
17 Baam pudke bandel Pygmy hog Sus salvinus
18 Bwanso Grey wolf Canis lupus
19 Lynx Lynx Felis lynx
20.a Salak Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata
20.b Salak Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla
21 Soons Gangetic dolphin Platisnista gangetica
22 Habrey Red panda Ailurus fulgens
23 Hiu chituwa Snow leopard Uncia uncia
24 Himali rato bhalu Brown bear Ursus arctos
25 Hispid kharayo Hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus
26 Hundar Stripped hyaena Hyaena hyaena.
Reptiles and amphibians.
S.N. Nepali name English name Scientific name
1 Aajingar Asiatic rock python Python morulus
2 Gharial gohi Gharial Gavialis gangeticus
3 Soon gohooro Golden monitor lizard Varanus flavescens.
Protected flora of Nepal.
S.N. Nepali name English name Scientific name.
1 Okhar Wanut Juglans regia
2 Kutki Gentian Neopicrorhiza
scrophularifolia
3 Khayar Catch tree Acacia catechu
4 Chanmp Magnolia Michelia champaca
5 Jatamansi Spikenard Nardostachys grandiflora
6 Talis patra Fer Abies spectabilis
7 Paanch aaule Dactylorhiza Dactylorhiza hatagirea
8 Yarsha gumba Cordyceps Cordiceps sinensis
9 Louth salla Himalayan yew Taxus baccata
10 Bijaya Sal Indian kino tree Pterocarpus marshupium
11 Silajit Mineral pitch Asphaltum
12 Satisal Indian rose wood Dalbergia latifolia
13 Sarpagandha/
chandmaruwa
Serpentine Rauvolfia serpentine

14 Simal Silk cotton tree Bombax ceiba
15 Sughandakokila Cinnamomum glaucescens
16 Sughandawal Valerian Valeriana jatamansii
17 Sunghabha Orchids Orchidaceae
18 Sal/Aagrakh/Sakhuwa Sal Shorea robusta
AVES
S. N. Nepali name English name Scientific name
1 Kalo saras Black stork Ciconia nigra
2 Khar mujur Bengal florican Houbaropsis bengalensis
3 Chir kalij Cheer pheasent Caterus wallichii
4 Danphe Impeyan pheasent Lophophorus impejanus
5 Monal Crimson headed pheasent Tragopan satyra
6 Raj dhanesh Giant hornbill Buceros bicornis
7 Sano khar mujur Lesser florican Sypheotides indica
8 Saras Sarus crane Grus antigone
9 Seto saras White stork Ciconia ciconia.
FLORA OF NEPAL
Recorded plants of Nepal (Total 5067 species
Rare, endemic and endangered spps (Total) 507 species
Endemic plants of Nepal 246 species
IUCN threat categories 107 species
Forest act protected species 18 species
CITES included 13 species
Endemic species of Nepal
Birds:-
Pnoepyga immaculata – Nepal wren babbler
Turdoides nepalensis – Spiny babbler
Mammals:-
Apodemus gurkha – Himalayan field mouse
Reptiles:-
Soincella capitanea – Lizard
Xenochrophis flaripunctatus schurenbergii – Snake
Protected areas of Nepal in IUCN management category
II – National park
X – World heritage site
IV – Managed nature reserve – Wildlife reserve
VIII- Multiple use area – Hunting area and conservation area
CITES status categories
Appendix I – Species threatened with extinction.
Appendix II – Species not yet threatened, but which could become endangered if trade is not controlled.
Appendix III – Species that are protected by individual countries within their borders, and for which co-
operation of other convention is sought.
IUCN threatened categories:-
E – Endangered
V- Vulnerable

R- Rare
I – Intermediate
K – Insufficiently known
T – Threatened
Species suitable for live fences are following
Agave Americana
Accacia catechu
Acacia nilotica
Arundo donax
Vitex negundo.
Days related to forestry
Wildlife week – Baisakh 1-7 (April 14 to 20)
World environment day – June 5
International nature day – October 13
World wetland day – February 2
World heritage day – April 18
Bio-diversity day – May 22
Soil conservation day - Shrawan 24 (August 8)
World water day – March 22
Highest flying butterfly in the world is Paralasa nepalaica.
Main growing season of plant is May to August.
The growing stock in the forest is the forest capital.
Eggs of crocodile are collected in March and April.
Hector ceballos lascurain (Mexico) is known as father of eco-tourism.
Unit of IUCN conservation monitoring centre in Cambridge, England.
Living fossil:- Whisk fern (Psilotum nudum)
Maximum height of the loose stone checkdam including foundation is 2 meter.
The dimension of box gabion is 1*1*2 meter. Maximum height including foundation not more
than 5 meter.
The compensating gradient between checkdams used in Nepal is not more than 3 %.
Larix nepalensis (Nepalese larch) is the only deciduous conifer species found in Langtang
National park.
Broad leaved species are called porous wood and conifers are called non-porous wood.
Tracheids makes wood darker and is later distinguished as annual rings.
Species composition in Sagarnath:-
Eucalyptus – 60%
Sissoo – 35%
Others – 5%
Total area: 11600 ha.
Area of single plot: - 25 ha
In a chatta 20% by volume more billets are added.
Distance between checkdam: Height of checkdam/ Gradient of gully.
PRA was developed by Robert Chamber.
To capture a Tiger a V shape is made of 3' wide white cloth known as vith.
Flascides: Bundles of cuttings planted in eroded areas.
Palisades: Shrub plantation which catches, Armours & reinforces.
Total number of fishes in Koshi Tappu Wild Life Reserve is 117.
Elephant polo was started in Nepal on 1982 & played in each December.
Highest flying butterfly in the world is Paralasa nepalaica.
INSECTS
S.No. Tree spp. causal factor Disease nature
1. Dalbergia sissoo Plecoptera reflexa Leaf eater

2. Tectona grandis a. Hapalia machaeralis
b. Hyblaea purea
a. Skeletonizer
b. Defoliator
3. Cedrus deodara Ectropis deodarae defoliator
4. Toona ciliata Hypsipyla robusta Shoot borer
5. Bobax ceiba Tonica niviferana Shoot bore
6. Pinus longifolia Ips longifolia Bark borer
7. Shorea robusta Hoplocerambyx spinicornis Wood borer
PROTECTED FLORA OF NEPAL
S.N
O.
Nepali name English name Scientific name
1. cf]v/ Walnut Juglans regia
2. s'6sL Gentian Neopicrorhiza scrophularifolia
3. vo/ Catch tree Acacia ctechu
4. rf‘k Magnolia Michelia champaca
5. h6fdzL Spikenard Nardostachy grandiflora
6. tfln; tq Fer Abis spectabilis
7. kf‘rcf}n] Dactylorhiza Dactylorhiza hatagirea
8. of;f{u'Daf Cordyceps Cordiceps sinensis
9. nf}6 ;Nnf Himalayan yew Taxus baccata
10. laho ;fn Indian kino tree Pterocarpus marsupium
11. lznflht Mineral pitch Asphaltum
12. ;lt;fn Indian rose wood Dalbergia latifolia
13. ;k{uGwf Serpentine Rauvolfia serpentina
14. l;dn Silk cotton tree Bobbex ceiba
15. ;'uGwsf]lsnf Cinnamomum glaucescens
16. ;'uGwjfn Valerian Valeriana wallichii
17. ;'gufef Orchids Orchidaceae
18. ;fn Sal Shorea robusta
Disease and fungus
S.No. Tree species Fungus name Disease name
1. Cedrus deodar a. F. annosus
b. Peniophora luna
a. Butt rot
b. Butt and trunk rot
2. a. Abis pindrow( fir)
b. Picea smithiana
( spruce)
a. Armillarea mellea
b. F. tomentanius, F. pini,
F. robustus
c. peridermium thomsoni , p. piceae,
ceropsora picea
a. Root rot
b. Heart rot
c. Needle rust
3. Pinus longifolia a. Cronartium himalayenese
b. F. pini, F. pinicola
Ganoderma applantum
c. Poria monticola
a. Chirpine swertia felt
rust
b. Heart rot
c. Brown cuboidial decay
4. Pinus wallichiana Fomes pini Heart rot
5. Dalbergia sissoo a. Fusarium solani
b. Ganoderma lucidum
c. Uredo sissoo
a. Wilt disease
b. Root rot
c. Leaf and twig disease
6. Shorea robusta a. Polyporous shorea
b. Hymenochaete rubiginosa, F.
caryophylli ,F. fustuosus
a. Root rot
b. Heart rot
7. Tectona grandis a. Psedomonas solanacearum
b. Peniophora rhizomorphosulphurea
c. Corticium salmonicolour
a. Wilt
b. Root rot
c. Pink disease
8. Santalum album Spike disease
9. Ecalyptus hybrid a. Corticium salmonicolour
b. Ganoderma lucidium
a. Pink diseases
b. Spike disease

Wildlife
The concept of integrated conservation and development was first adopted in Nepal in which
protected area - Annapurna C.A. 7629 sq.km.
What is the main factor causing an animal spp. to become rase or in danger of extinction?
(a) loss and destruction of vital parts of habitat.
(b) Unusually high mortality or low reproduction.
(c) Climate, geological and evoliationary change.
Taper tables are generally prepared.
* To study the form of a tree.
* To prepare volume tables.
* To know the actual form by diameter at a fixed point of a tree.
The presence of calcium in the subsoil is likely to be in abundance in - Arid regions.
As one moves from warmer to a cooler climate, the organic matter and nitrogen of comparable soil
tends to - Increase.
In general, it is recognized that bacterial and actinomycetes function better in mineral soils at -
Intermediate and higher pH values.
From the soil management point of view, which element is used to advantage on salty lands,
especially where sodium carbonate abound - Sulfer.
Decibel is used to measure - Noise pollution.
Cultural diversity is the sub-division - Biodiversity.
The part of runoff which enters the stream promptly after the rainfall or snow meeting is - Direct
runoff.
The measure of average suitable for qualitative data is Median
Multiple use of a forest land means - production of many outputs from the same forest area.
According to matting behaviour, a stage (male deer/belongs to which group ? - Polygame.
The area maintained by an individual / social group of a wildlife spp. with adive defence against
the individuals of the same spp for special purpose is termed on - Territory.
The rear pugs of tiger are smaller, narrower than the front.
Which of the mineral has the highest hardness value ? - Quartz.
The vertical angle between the longitudinal axes of a freely suspended magnetic needle and the
horizontal line is called angle of dip.
The main principle of surveying is to work from whole to the part.
Forest fire environment depends on - weather topography inflammable material.
Frost produced by cold air brought from elsewhere is called - Advective frost.
Common nursery pests in forest nursery are - Cutworm cricket grasshoppers.
The contribution of tourism sector to the national GDP is approximately 4%.
Royal Chitwan NP receive highest number of tourists.
The rich flora of Nepal equals to 2% of the world flora.
RAMSAR convention was adopted in 1971 to check the lost of wetland and ensure their
conservation.
Alley cropping is also known as Hedgerow intercropping.
The removal of substance from plants by aquears solution such as rain, dew and fogs is called -
leaching.
Taungya system was developed in Burma.
Stem tightner is useful equipment to protect the leaning tree from splitting during tree felling
operation.
Can't hook is mostly used in skidding the smaller diameter log in the ground.
Skyline cable is the advance cable yarding systems for timber transportation.
Three timber classes has been graded by TCN in Nepal.
The main forms of warping defects in the wood is given below: Bowing, cupping and twist.
Star shake is considered as biggest defect in wood grading system.
Sapwood part of the wood is mostly liable to attack by insects.
The best method for finding moisture content in the wood is Distillation method.
Land capability classification in Nepal are grouped into seven classes and five sub-classes.
The seeds of prunus spp. are dispersed mostly by Birds.

Site index is the most common indication of Site quality.
The factor responsible for the wildlife population growth is called Natality.
The mark and recapture method of population count is also known as pterson or linction index.
Hypsiphyla robusta is called stem borer (Toona ciliate)
The Gullet is the entire opening between two adjacent teeth of saw.
The difference between two measured values of the same quantity is called discrepancy.
Productivity of forest land is largely defined in terms of site quality.
In shorea robusta, good seed year generally comes in 3 years.
In centesimal system, one circumference is of 400 grades.
Planimeter measures area of the mp accurately
Most conifers prefer at the pH of 5.5 or less.
The production of new individuals by a population is termed as Natality.
The decrease in diameter of a stem of a trees or log from base upward is taper.
Grass minimum temperature is defined as temperature of the surface of the soil.
The permanent snowline in most of Nepal is at about 500m.
During the period of dormancy of seed, it has high reparatory quotient.
In generally, weathering is faster in - dark coloured rocks.
One method of soil sterilization by heating the moistened soil mixture involve, the heated at 1000
c
for 15 to 30 minutes.
Conversin is a change from one silvicultural system to another.
Plantation of populus ciliate in Mustang is carried out of tall hardwood cutting, the best season is -
winter.
Line out - to transplant seedling from seed beds to rows in nursery.
Azadirachta indica coppice strongly.
Snow is beneficial to the regeneration of - Cedrus deodar.
An area affected by frost more than other areas in the locality is referred to as - (a) Frost pocket
(b) Frost hole (c) Frost locality.
Taxus baccata is a shade demander.
Longest living herb is - Agave spp.
The pollination of the flowers take place by bird is Erythrina arborescene.
It is generally accepted that more than 50% of soil eroded by wind is moved by - Saltation.
Shear failure results is landslides.
Trapezoidal shaped gulley is formed when soil with very resistant sub-soil.
The WHO has recommended pH level for drinking water purpose is 5.5
Radial faces absorbs water less rapidly than tangential faces
The maximum effective height of the boulder checkdam is 2.0m
In bio-engineering for anchoring purpose which of the following is more suitable is Deep rooted.
Soil whose properties are influenced mainly by the parent material is known as Endodymorphic.
The sustained yield means - The material that a forest can yield annually periodically.
The averge body temperatures of bird is 400
-420
C
The best method for finding moisture content of wood, containing appreciable quantities
substances that volatile at temperatures below or at the boiling point of water is by - Distillation
method.
Growing stock is - only the standing volume of the standing trees.
CITES was adopted in 1973/1975 to establish worldwide control over trade in endangered wildlife
and wildlife produced.
Basal area factor is essential while using. (Point sampling)
The most important fungi causing damping off in conifer seedlings in nursery belongs to -
Phytopthora, Rhizoctonia phythoan.
A beam rigidly fixed at one end, and free at the other is known as Cantilever beam.
Light continuous tapping is done in respect of all trees above 0.9m in girth in area.
Generally twisted grained chirpine gives higher yield than straight grained chirpine.
The timber corporation of Nepal was established in 1960.
Grass land covers 12% of total land.
Agriculture land covers 21% ,,
Shrubland covers 10.6% ,,

Number of plant spp (excluding forest produced other than plan) that has been legally protected in
Nepal is 17
Legal status of the religious forest was first recognized in Nepal is 1976.
According to NTFP policy 2061 there are 5 policy.
The threshold unit of the private forest area in hills which was not nationalized was 25 ropani.
Number of type of hunting license that can be issued legally in Nepal 4.
With the resumption process of the CF by DFO, what is the period with in which the group is
asked to submit their explanation over the matter - 35 days.
Smalian's Formulae is legal accepted for calculatiy log volume in Nepal.
Simal is not considered fuelwood in Nepal.
The maximum linear dimension for a wood to be classified & evaluated as fireswood is 2 ft.
The Forest Act came in force by the date - 3 april 1995.
The scientific name of a tree locally known to be malayagin in cinnamomum glaucesens.
Cordyceps sinensis (Yarsha gumba) is found between the following altitudes in Nepal 3900-
4500m.
The chiraito is an biannual.
Best time to collection of Yarsa Gumba is late monsoon.
The scientific name of medicinal plant locally known as Bojo is Acorus calamus.
Number of Bamboo spp. identified in Nepal is over 40.
Seed collection for teak is Nov.-Jan.
,, Sissoo is Dec.-March.
,, Blue pine is Oct-Nov.
,, Alder is Nove.-March.
The winter plantation is carried out in high altitude.
In a condition, where fuelwood demand is high in local, the best silviculture system to be adopted
is clear felling.
The deep buried seeds are not germinated or poorly germinated due to limit supply of oxygen.
For which spp in Nepal, the breeding seed orchard has been est. Choerospondias axillaries.
High pH of soil causes deficiency of Iron.
Selected tree proved to be genetically superior by the method of progeny testing is - elite tree.
An area where superior genotypes and phenotypes is est. and managed for seed is seed orchard.
Which is the fast growing spp introduced in Nepal, suitable for plantation on very arid as well as
very calcarcous soil of Nepal - Propsis Juliflora.
An exotic spp suitable to plant in poor and acidic soils of altitudinal range between 1500m and
2500m in Nepal is Pinus palvia.
The altitudeonal range for the Hemlock (Isuga demosa) is 2100-3600m.
The tree species which is favoured by the over grazing and the fire in its spread is Rhodendron.
The coniferous spp are known for its non-coppicing ability, however one of the following is
reported to be coppice, though not a good coppicer - Juniperus indica.
Oaks - (i) They are fire siensitive.
(ii) They are coppice well.
(iii) They are frost hardy.
In Nepali name for Buddleja asiatica is Bhimsenpati.
Frankia, an actionoprmycetes, is a root noudles forming associate for the atmospheric fixation of
nitrogen. It forms nodules in the root of the following species - Alder.
Which of the following spp can serve better as a good nurse for sal regeneration in frosty areas -
Terminalia tomentosa.
Terminalia bellerica is not recalcitrant type.
Melia azedarch is native to Iron.
Which of the following is the best suited for planted flora poor site with minimum receiving
rainfall below the 800m altitude for Nepal is - Maharuth.
The silvicultural system suitable for Acacia catechu is coppice.
Khair - Frost hardy, drought resistant, fire resistant.
The number of the seeds in a kg of Rosewood seed is 27500.
With respect to light requirement, the pterocarpus marsipium is of the category a - moderate light
demander.

Schleahera oleosa is a common associate of the following type of forest - Sal.
Spp. servie as the indicator of sal forest is Clerodendron.
Kadam is not a strong light demander.
A shrub stand of Schima and Castonapsis managed for the supply of timber, pole, fuelwood,
fodder should better adopt - clear felling & strip.
A hill sal stand of sampling with good site condition and regeneration primarily managed for
fuelwood should adopt simple coppice system.
A hill sal forest of pole managed for the objective a timber having good stand condition but poor
regeneration, need the following silvicultural operation - Free thinning.
The mostly pruned tree in Nepal is Blue pine.
The technically appropriate time period for the pruning operation in a forest crop is - Winter.
The technically appropriate time period for the cleaning operation in a sapling crop is - before on
set of monsoon.
The most suitable silvicultural system for unstable hilly terrain of Nepal - selection.
The cutting of damaged or defective trees for there economic value is articipation is salvage
eutting.
A tree DBH size lying between the range of 40m to 10cm is classified as - Sapling.
In a coppice with standard system, the standards occupy - 1/3 to 1/2 area canopy.
The best season for the coppicing is spring.
Adina cardifolia is a bad coppicer.
Chirpine is that spp. which regenerates in areas where grazing is common and fire occurs
regularly.
Dying back phenomenon is not seen jamun.
Thinning do - decreases the total volume of a given stand.
Standard height of pollarding is 1-1.2m.
Normal purning is done upto a height of 2/3 of the total height.
Azadirachl indica is better suitable for plantation on the following site condition - Saline soils.
Damping off diseases in nursery is caused by Fusarium, Rhizotonia, Pythium.
The pH of potting moisture for the polybags plant should be in range of 4.5-6.
The length of the root shoot cutting for the sissoo is usually maintained as 15-20cm.
The germination percentage for Dalbergia sissoo seeds, at a normal range between 60-80%.
Chirpine seeds has the viability of a period of 4 years.
Artocparpus lakoocha has following number of seed/kg (2000-3000).
Okhar has a minimum number of seeds.
The suitable spp for plantation is grassland should be & Fast growing * Fire resistant * Frost
hardy
Denuded hill slopes of temperate region should better be planted with the following spp. Blue
pine.
For stump making for stump planting a plant with collar diameter between the following range is
selected (1-2)cm.
Making the position of plant in a plantation area is known as to stake out.
Surken beds are used in general for the following site condition
* Dry area * Arid area * low rainfall area
What should be the population range of the nursery area with respect to plantation area - 0.25-
2.5%
While considering the site selection for nursery, the suitable soil should be for the purpose is - well
drainage & sandy loam.
The inoculation of rhizobium as pre treatment of seed may be required mostly by the following
spp. - Laucaena leucocephala.
The following is the example from Nepal of the seed dormancy specially due to internal factor -
Lagerstroemia parviflora.
A common method of breading seed coat dormancy in legumnose seed is Hot water treatment.
No seed extraction is required for the following spp. Teak, Sal, Acer.
The forest tree seed, which needs a more intensive pre-sowing treatment is - Teak.
Vital stainly is a scientific method of seed test applied for the test of viability.
The general conifers seed are applied with the following method of seed storage - Dry and storage.

In Nepal the trees lines varies between the altitude of 3700-4200m.
Birch - Rhodendron is a typical of the following lite zone of Nepal. Sub-alpine.
Occurrence of silver fir is the characteristics of lower subalpine.
The sub-alpine mountain oak locally known as Khashru oak is characteristics features of the
following, Humla Jumla region.
A felling area, usually one of an annual series in clear felling system is a - Coupe.
A forest crop containing many age classes should better be managed under selection system.
In a selection system, if the felling cycle is increased to rotation period, the system would approach
the following - clear felling.
In coppice with standard system, the yield of coppice is regulated by area.
The statement that the annul or periodic harvests of forestry products principles of sustained yield.
The series of trees of all age classes to enable the removal of the oldest is known as complete
series of age gradiation.
The rotation designed for Eucalyptus spp for the output of electrical poles purposes is technical
rotation.
The rotation, which gives the highest net return on capital value is financial rotation.
The increment in forest management is usually referred for only the volume increment.
Vonmantel'sformulae is also known to be the formula of grow simplecity.
What is the main defect of yield regulation by Von Mantels formulae.
* It does not consider the difference between actual and Normal G.S.
* It is in elastic
* It involves complete enumeration of G.S.
SA3
T3
Water logging spp. Fire resistance spp.
* Albezia julibrassian * Pinus roxburghii
* Albezia procera * Shorea robusta
* Anthocephalus cadamba * Bombax ceiba
* Salix spp. * Dalbergia latifolia
* Terminalia tomentosa * Legestromia parviflora
* Terminalia belerica * Garuga pinna
* Trewia nudiflora
Fire sensitive spp. * Cedrus deodar
Spp. Banded for use, sell, Export, Collect Spp banded for felling, Export & transport
* Okhar (bark) Juniper indica * Acacia catechu
* Panchaule * Shorea robusta
* Orchid (Rhizome) Orchis latifolia * Juglan regia
* Pierorhiza kurroa (Kutki) Rhizome * Michelia champaca
* Dalbergia latifolia
Spp. Banded for export processed with * Bombax meleribaricum
Permission of Department of forests * Petrocarpus mamupium
* Jatamasi Vateriana jatamasi
* Sugandawal Vateriana wallichina
* Sarpaganda Rauvolfia serpentina
* Yarsagumpa Cordyceps sinensis
* Silajit Abis spactablis
* Talispatra Taxus baccata
* Sugantha kokul Cibnamomum gluceseers
* Laulth salla Taxus baccata
* Jhyam Permalia spp.
CA3
T MED2
S2
JPT Q. BAP AP3
Coppice strongly Coppice fairly Coppice badly Do not coppice
* Shorea robusta * Juglans regia * Bombax ceiba * Abis pindrow

* Dalbergia sissoo *Phetracarpus * Adina cardifolia * Picea smithino
* Dalbergia latifolia maraipium * Populus ciliata * Punus roxburghii
* Acacia catechu * Terminalia spp. * Pinus wallichina
* Syzygium cumini * Quercus gluocea
* Cedrus deodar
* Euclyptus spp.
* Tectona grandis
* Albezia spp.
* Azadiracha indica
* Cassia fistula
* Morus alba
BAT DP3
S C2
P SAT
Strong light demandar Shade bearer Shade demander
* Pinus roxburghii * Cedrus deodar * Syzygium cumini
* Populus ciliate * Cypresus tolorosa * Abies pindrow
* Pinus wallichi * Picea smithiana * Taxus baccata
* Shorea robusta
* Adina cardifolia Lugeminacea family: Acacia spp, Dalbergia spp.
* Dalbergia sisoo Ficaceae family: Ficus spp, Morus alba
* Tectona grandis Dipetrocarpus family: Shorea robusta
* Bombax ceiba Taxaceae family : Taxus baccata
Moraceae family: Moruso
Lureceae family: Cinamomum chamfora,
Lista monosperima
Introduction of Royal Nepal Army in PA of Nepal - 2031 (1974)
IUCN categories - II = 9 National Park
IV = 3 Wildlife reserve
VI = 1 Hunting reserve
I = Strick Nature reserve
VI = Conservation area
BZ = 11
Organization Est. IUCN CITES
IUCN - 1948 Reptiles 9 3
CITES - 1973 Birds 22 9
WWF - 1961 / in Nepal 1967 Animals 28 27
RAMSAR - 1971
KMTCN - 1982
UNESCO - 1972
NPWC - 1973
Estimated population
* Royal Bengal tiger 360-370
* Wild Elephant 120-156
* Capture ,, 185-200
* One horn n RCNP 372 (2005)
* ,, RBNP 67 (2000)
* ,, RSWLR 7 (2004)
Endemic
Faunal spp. - 160
Flora spp. - 342

Arna - 159 (150-160)
Panthera tigris - 340-350
P.A. Area (sq.km.) Percent No.
National Park 10,288 6.99 9
Wildlife reserve 979 0.67 3
Hunting reserve 1,325 0.90 1
Conservation area 11,327 7.69 3
Total B.Z. area 4666.67 3.17 9 - 19.42
Purposed BZ 413.52 0.28 2
P.A.'s 28,999.12 19.70
* World Heritage sites : Sagarmatha National Park 1979
Royal Chigtwan National Park 1984
* Ramsar Sites : Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve 1987
Ghodaghodi Tal, Kailali 2003
Bishajari Tal, Chitwan 2003
Jagdispur Reservoir, Kapilvastu 2003
Flora and Fauna diversity
Ecosystem 118
Forest type 35
Flowering plants 6500
Fungus 1500
Lichens 350
Mammals 181
Birds 863
Reptiles 147
Fishes 180
Butterfly 640
Moths >6000
Particular Day
World wetland Day 2nd Feb
World Forest Ed. Day 21st March
World Fresh water day 22nd March
Earth day 23rd March
International biodiversity day 22nd May
Soil Conservation 8th August
World food day 16 Oct.
World Wildlife Week 1-7 Oct
Nepal ,, 1-7 Baisakha
World Heritage day 28th April
World Environment day 5th June
S.N. Protect area Et.
Year
Area IUCN
Category
Buffer
zone date
Area Special Features
National Park
1 Chitwan
National Park
1973 932 II 1996 750 Oldest NP in Nepal,
World heritage site
in (1984) Rhino
(372)
2 Bardia
National Park
1976
1984
968 II 12996 328 Elephant, dolphins,
translocated rhino
3 Rara National 1076 106 II Not - Smallest part in

Park declaration Nepal largest /age
Rara lies (10.8sqm)
4 Sagarmatha
National Park
1976 1148 II 2002 275 Highest peak in the
world heritage site
(1979) Musk deer
habitat.
5 Langtang N.P. 1976 1710 II 1998 420 Famous for Red
Panda
6 Shey-
Phoksundo
N.P.
1984 3555 II 1998 1349 Famous for snow-
leopard, trans
Himalayan spp.
found.
7 Khaptad N.P. 1984 225 II Not
declaration
- Core area of
Khaptad is religious
importance after
Khaptad Baba
Ashram.
8 Makalu-Barun
National Park
1992 1500 II 1999 830 Different types of
birds, sub-tropical
to high alpine
vegetation.
9 Shivapuri N.P. 2002 144 II Not
declaration
- Youngest N.P. of
Nepal, protect water
source of ktm.
valley
Wildlife Reserve
1 Koshi Tappu
Wildlife
Reserve
1976 175 IV 2004 173 Habitat of last
surviving pppr
of
wild buffalo in
Nepal, Ramsar site
(1987). Paradise for
bird watchers.
2 Suklaphanta
Wildlife
Reserve
1976 305 IV 2004 243.5 Home of swamp
deer (largest her of
the world), large
tiger popn
density.
3 Parsa Wildlife
Reserve
1984 499 IV 2005 298.17 Good population
wild elephant and
gaur.
1 Dhorpatan
Hunting
Reserve
1987 1325 IV No
declaration
- For the purpose of
sport hunting.
Conservation Area
1 Annapurna CA 1990 7629 VI Managed by KMTCN Largest PA in Nepal,
Famous trekking route.
2 Manaslu CA 1998 1663 VI Managed by KMTNC Natural & cultural
importance.
3 Kanchanjungha
Conservation
Area
1997 2035 VI Managed by Government as a part of
WWF's living planned campaign and
declared as "Gift to earth" in 1997.
Animal Home range size
Common leopard 3-8 sq. meter
Tiger male 52-62 sq.km.
Tiger female 26-30 sq.km

Red fox 2 sq.miles
Cover (Convert) - Shelter cover - for shelter purpose
Thermal cover - escape heat
Feeding cover - for research of food
Escape cover - for dodge the predators
Ambush cover - to catch pray
Nesting cover - for lay and hatch eggs
Roosting cover - birds rests at night safe from predators.
- Wildlife management includes restoring, protecting, conserving and maintaining animal population.
S.N. Species Collection Time Viability
1. Abies pindrow Sept.-Oct. Low
2. Acacia catechu Jan-Feb. 6-8 months
3. ASlbiuza chinensis Nov-Dec 1 yr.
4. Albiza julibrisin Nov-Jan 100 yrs.
5. Albiza lebbek Nov.-Jan 30 yrs.
6. Albiza procera Dec.-Jan Upto 15 yrs.
7. Alnus nepalensis Nov.-March 1 yr or more
8. Arthocarpus lakoocha Jan-August 2 days
9. Bombax ceiba April-May
10. Bauhinia variegate March-June
11. Dalbergia sissoo Dec-March 4 yrs.
12. Fraxinus floribunda Sept-Jan 3 yrs.
13. Juglans regia Sept.-Dec. 1 yr.
14. Michelia champaca August-Nov. 2 weeks
15. Pinus roxburghii Jan-March 1 yr.
16. Pinus wallichiana Oct-Nov. 1 yr.
Endemic animal species of Nepal
Butterflies 4 species
Moths 26 species
Fishes 8 species
Mammals 1 species
Birds 2 species
Reptiles and amphibians 11 species
Spiders 108 species
Niche : Functional role of a species in the community including activities and relationship.
Generalist : Broad niches and allow them to exist in a wide range of habitat types.
Eg. Sparrow, Crow, Spotted deer, Rhesus, Monkeys
Specialist : Confined to one or two habitat types
Eg. Black buck, blue bull, horn bill etc.
The limit or the tolerance capacity of the habitat is carrying capacity.
The no of prey required for the sustaince of predator is more than required. This is one of the
factor which causes biological surplus. (gfkmf)
Capacity to produce off spring irrespective of the number which survive to maturity is said to
Breeding potential.
Gregariousness - tendency to stay together of some spp. prefer to stay and live in small groups
seen in deer, many birds, monkey and elephant.
Loness - opp. To gregariousness, when animal particularly roam in single. Eg. Tiger
Flocking - indicator of gregariousness

* Migratory birds occur in the largest flocks
* Predatory birds do not move in flocks
* Cheetal or spotted deer flock according to age class
* In certain spp. similar sex flock together.
* Native to
Eucalyptus - Austrlia
Cinnamomum camphora - China, Japan, Taiwan
Cryptomera japonica - Japan
Ceiba pentendra (Kapok) - South America
Gravillia robusta - Australia, Mexico, Central America
Melia azedarch - Iran
* Spp. Found in Eastern Part
Populus glauca, Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Castanopsis hytix, Larix griffthiana, Lythocarpus
pachyphylla (Bada katus) ...
* Spp. Found in Western Part
Abies pindrow, Assculus indica, Cedrus deodara, Q. floribunda, Cupressus torulosa, Populus
ciliate, Pterocarpus marsupium (Bijay sal), Castonopsis tribuloids (Masure katus)
* Central and Eastern spp.
Acacia nilotica, Castanopsis indica (Dhale Katus), Q. Lamellosa, Q. Glauca, Schima wallichi,
Terminalia myriocarpa, Eleocarpus Sphaerius (Rudraksha)
* Central Western Spp.
Acer caesium, Grewia optiv a (Bhimal), Abies spectabilis, Q. lanata, Q. leucotrichophora.
Mallotus phillipinendeis - Sindure
* Pioneer (first) spp - Alnus nepalensis, Pinus roxbrghii, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu.
* Climax (found in large varieties) spp. - Shorea robusta, Castanopsis spp, Schima wallichi.
Types of seeds
* Orthodox - Can be dried upto micro-climate 5-10%
- eg. Sissoo, simal, Haldu (Adina cardifolia)
- Successfully stored for long period at low temperature.
* Recalcitrant seed - Cannot be dried below micro-climate 20-30% without losing its viability
- Cannot be stored for long period.
Eg. Sal, Chilaune, Badahar, Mango, Okhar, Kutmiro (Litsea monopetala), Litsea Clbeba
(Siltimur), Asculus indica, Castanopsis hystrix.
S.N. Tree Name Disease Name Fungus Name Insect (Pest) Nature
1. Shorea robusta (a) Root rot
(b) Heart rot
Polyporous shorea
Hymenochaete
rubiginosa
Fomes fastuous, F.
cryophyll
Hoplo
ceramybyx
Spinicornis
Cambium and
wood borer
2. Dalbergia sissoo (a) Wilt
(b) Root rot
(c) Leaf and
twing rust
Fusarium safari
Ganoderma
lucidium Uredo
sissoo
(a)
Plecoptera
reflexa
Defloliater
3. Acacia catechu (a) Root rot Ganoderma

(b) Heart rot lucidum Fomes
badius
4. Tctona grandis (a) Wilt
(b) Root rot
(c) Pink
Pseudonomas
sofanacearum,
Peniphora rhyam,
Corticium
salmonicolar
(a) Hyblea
purea
(b) Hypalea
machaeralis
Defoliater
Skelentonises
5. Santalum album Spike Mycoplasma like
bodies
6. Eucalyptus (a) Spkke
(b) Pink
Ganoderma
cuciduim
Corticium
salmonicotar
7. Deodar (a) Butt rot
(b) Butt and
Trunk
(c) Butt root
rot
Fomes annosus
Periphora luna
Fomes robusta
(a) Ectropsis
deodarae
Deofoliater
8. Toona ciliate (a) Root rot
(b) Heart rot
Armillaria
melea/G.
lucidermia
Fomes Senex
Hypiphyla
robusta
Shoot borer
9. Bombax ceiba (a) Pink
(b) Root Rot
Corticium
salmonicolor
Ganoderma
lucidium
(a) Tunica
niviferena
Shoot borer
10. Albies pindrow
Picea smithiana
(a) Root Rot
(b) Heart Rot
(c) Needle rust
Armillarea meliea
Fomes
famentarius, F.
robusta, Fomes
Piniperid
ermicuim
thompsoni, P.
Picerae, Cerepsora
picereae
11. Pinus roxburgi (a) Felt rot
(b) Heart rot
9c) Brown
cuboidal decay
Cronatium
binalayannese,
Fomespine, Fomes
pincola,
Ganaderma
oppolantum
Allps
longifolia
Shoot borer
12. Pin. Wallichina
Dendrocalamus
spp.
(a) Heart rot
(a) Leaf light
(b) Leaf
Trametes peni,
Fomes pins
Rhizoctonic solani
Pucinia
zanthosperma
Dinoderus
Minutus
Stem borer

Manual of Afforestation
» Most important factor governing the distribution of the natural vegetation is climate.
» Altitudinal effects has resulted vegetation in parallel zones, i.e. tropical to alpine and zone of permanent
snow.
» Frost occurs annually between 1700 and 2000m.
» Altitudinal limits of various species tend to be higher on south facing slopes than on north facing slopes.
» Length of rainy days (season) tends to increase from east to west.
» Pinus roxburghii may occur on both sides in dry areas & is absent from wet areas.
» At 1600m, Quercus leutrichophora begins to appear on north facing slopes and at about 1800m oak
prevails on all aspects.
» "Phytogeographical" is the factor influencing the distribution of trees.
» Nepal lies at the meeting place between western and eastern floristic elements.
» Cedrus deodara, Aesculus indica and Quercus floribunda are not found in east.
» Larix griffithiana, Castanopsis hystrix and Quercus lamellosa are absent from eastern Nepal. Acrocarpus
fraxinifolius, Terminalia myriocarpa, Eugenia Formosa and Schima wallichi are rare or absent in
western Nepal.
» In over large areas of middle hills nearly all the natural forest has been removed or replaced by
cultivation.
» Shrubberies:- dense intricate masses of climbers up to about 3m in height.
» Above 2500m population is less dense and more forest remains.
» When degraded forest is protected it recovers dramatically.
» Frequent fires prevent colonization of other species and maintain Pine in almost pure stands.
Silvics (L.S. Khanna)
• Herb: not more than one meter, green stem.
• Shrub: not more than 6m & above pole stage when height growth slows down and crown
expansion becomes marked.
• Conifers require less spacing than hard deciduous.
• Conifers are taller than broad leaved species.
• Conifers generally have greater diameter than broadleaved.
• Trees have greater life than herbs and shrubs.
• Higher rainfall increases size of leaves.
• Soft leaves decompose quickly than hard leaves.
• Abundant and well disturbed rainfall keeps plants leafless for short period.
• Santalum album may be evergreen or deciduous according to the nature of host plant.
• Natural forest of Santalum album is found only in Gorkha.
• Branches originating from adventitious or dormant buds on the trunk of tree or branches is called
"Epicormic branches."
Modified root with fungus.
Ectotropic :-Due to Basidiomytes.
Endotrophic:- Due to combination of both.
Ectendrotrophic:- combination of both.
• Lignotubers:- Underground swellings found in Eucalyptus. They are modified stem developed
from double accessory buds in the axils of cotyledons. Generally becomes active & produce shoot
if the tree is cut down, injured or burnt.
• Root nodules:-Contains Nitrogen fixing bacteria in roots of some species of 8 families.
• Root nodules are not present in Cassia tora in spite of being of "Leguminosae".
• Increase in size is "increment" and formation of new organs is "development".
• Seedlings: germination to 1m height.
• Saplings: 1m till lower branches start to fall.
• Phenology: Science that deals with time of appearance of characteristic periodic events such as
leaf shedding etc. when they are influenced by natural factors.

• Heavy rainfall, higher humidity & high temperature increases speed of fruit ripening.
• Fruit ripening of Dalbergia sissoo & Magnifera indica is not affected by climatic factors.
• Tree does not grow equally in all season; therefore they form growth ring (exception Sal &
Mango).
• Fast growing species has annual rings wider than "5mm", height increment more than 60cm/year
& volume 10m³/ha.
• Width of growth ring effects on strength of wood.
• Tapering of trees from base to apex is called form.
• Taper is great in young age & less in old age.
• Solitary trees flower quick (age wise) than in aggregation.
• Florigin (hormones) are responsible for flowering.
• In vegetative propagation, flowering is quickened by "pruning of roots". So does obstruction in
translocation of food.
• Stand: An aggregation of trees in an area uniformly distributed. Also acts as unit of Silviculture.
• Forest raised by seed is high forest and that by vegetative propagation is coppice forest.
• Even aged forests are called regular forest and uneven aged are irregular or selection forest.
• In un even aged forests age differences up to 25% of the rotation may be allowed.
• Principal species: The species first (by volume, frequency or Silvicultural value) in mixed stand.
• Mixed forest: The forest where at least 20% of canopy consists of species other than principal
species.
• Accessory species: A useful species of less value than principal.
• Auxiliary/ Secondary/ Subsidiary species: species of inferior size or quality.
• Dominant trees: that forms the tallest canopy.
• Dominated: not of the upper canopy but leading shoots not overtopped by neighbouring trees.
• Suppressed: Trees that reach only ½ or 5/8 of tallest trees.
• Number of trees in an area decreases with age.
• Over wood: Uppermost storey of high forest with two or more distinct crown levels.
LOCALITY FACTORS
• Site: The complex of physical and biological factors of an area that determines what vegetation it
may carry.
• Site type: qualitative classification on the basis of climate, soil & vegetation.
• Site class: quantitative classification on the basis of potential wood production.
• About 42% of solar radiation is reflected back from earth known as "albedo."
• Increase in latitude decreases solar radiation.
• Increase in altitude increases solar radiation.
• Plants in absence of light become pale yellow and have thin and long internodes; a condition
known as etiolation.
• Most important factor for vegetation distribution is climate.
• Rate of photosynthesis increase up to 25°c and than decreases.
• Rate of respiration up to 40°c and than decreases.
• Air temperature affects the activities of enzymes, which are practically stopped at temperatures
above 50°c and below 1°c.
• Chlorophyll formation & decomposition both occur in presence of light.
• Light stimulates stomata opening; Red & Blue light affect photosynthesis.
• Light required for photosynthesis is less than 2% of total light that falls on leaves.
• Plants grown in blue light are small sometimes; generally normal.
• Red light elongates cell.
• Violet and ultra violet light brings dwarf ness in plants.
• Trees grow after sunset & before sunrise due to low intensity of light.
• Height growth is retarded in intense light conditions.
• Trees growing in shades are usually taller than those growing in open.

• The intensity of light on southern aspect is about 1.6 to 2.3 times higher than on northern aspect.
• Leaves exposed to full light are smaller.
• Light demander: Species that require abundant light for its development.
• Light increment: The rapid diameter increment of trees due to light stimulus following increment
fellings.
• Shade demander: Species requiring at least in early stages, some degree of shade for normal
development.
• Canker: A diseased area in bark and cambium due to frost injury.
• Single grained: Structure less condition of soil, each grain being independent as in dune sand.
• The climate defined by modified or adjusted climatic factors is called bio-climate.
• Massive: Structure less, compacted condition of soil without distinct arrangement of particles due
to overgrazing & misuse of land. Highly liable to erosion.
• Crumby: Small aggregates of irregular shape of 3mm or 1/8" in diameter. Least liable to erosion.
• Granular: Soil aggregates are more or less sub- angular or rounded in shape & size of up to 6mm
(1/4") in diameter.
• Blocky or Nutty: Compact aggregate, more or less rounded in shape & 6mm to 25mm (1/4" to 1")
in diameter.
• Cloddy: Irregularly shaped aggregates of medium to hard consistency & more than 25mm in
diameter.
• Soil Porosity: The extent to which the gross volume of soil is unoccupied by solid particles.
• Chirpine occurs on quartzite rocks while blue pine occurs on mica schist.
• Cupressus torulosa occurs on lime stones.
• Teak grows on lime rich rocks & is absent from quartz and black cotton soils and avoids laterites.
• Catena: Soils of same age, similar parent material and occurring under similar climatic condition;
but having different characteristics due to variation in relief and drainage.
• Broad leaved species tend to develop brown earth & conifers tend to develop podosolic soils.
• Pterocarpus marshupium occurs gregariously in laterites and lateritic soils (silican pan).
• Orstein: The humic sesquioxide cemented material forming the pan in "B" horizon of iron
podosoils.
• Black cotton are deepest sedentary soils.
• Natural aggregates of soil are called "Peds" where as artificial are called "clods".
• Calcium, Molybdenum and Potassium supply are high in soil with high pH.
• Iron and Magnesium supply decreases in soil with high pH.
Percentage of limits of mixtureSoil class
Sand Silt Clay
Clay <50 <50 30 or more
Silty Clay <20 50- 70 30-50
Sandy Clay 50-70 <20 20-30
Clayey Loam 20-50 20-50 20-30
Silt Loam <50 50 or more <20
Loam 30-50 30-50 <20
Loamy Sand 80-85 15-20
Sandy Loam 50-80 20-25
Sand >85 <15
Soil Condition Deficient Material
Lack of organic material in soil, defective
drainage& high acidity
Nitrogen
High acidity as well as leaching Phosphorus
Saline alkali soils with high proportion of Calcium

sodium
Bad drainage & removal of leaf litter Potassium
High pH Iron
• Sal grows best on soil with pH 4.5 to 5.5.
• Teak grows best on soil with pH 6.5 to 7.6.
• Terminalia grows on soil with pH up to 9.8.
• Nitrogen is best available when pH is between 6 to 8.
• Damping off can be controlled by maintaining pH at 5.5 or little less.
Name of mineral Deficiency Symptoms
Nitrogen Shoots short & thin, leaves sparse, small in size and pale green in
colour, early defoliation.
Phosphorus Shoots short & thin, leaves sparse, small in size, dull green in colour,
occasionally with purplish patches; hinders Cambial activity and
inhibits reduction of nitrates thus retarding protein formation.
Potassium Growth stunted, leaves with purplish tints, margin chlorotic and
scorched.
Calcium Tips of shoots die back; leaves of margin scorched & turned up, injury
to roots and meristematic regions.
Magnesium Intervenal necrosis (death of plant cells) and chlorosis.
Sulphur Chlorosis. Similar to that caused by nitrogen deficiency.
Iron Tips of upper leaves chlorotic, leaves bleached, margin with brown
patches.
Zinc Malformation of leaves similar to that caused by virus disease; lower
leaves turn yellow at tips & margins.
Copper Die back of shoots; chlorosis of green tissues.
Manganese Intervenal Necrosis
Boron Defoliation & resetting of terminal leaves; death of growing tips of
shoot & root.
Succession
• Seres: plant community involved in succession before the climax is reached.
• Exacting species: the species that makes higher demand in regard to soil and other factors
(opposite of pioneer).
• Thoreau (1863) first used the term plant succession and Clements (1963) elaborated it.
• The effect of vegetation on site (reaction) is the most important factor responsible for succession.
• The major unit of vegetation comprising the climax communities of an area uniform in its major
physiognomic features is called formation or climatic climax.
• Pro-climax: climax which are not typical of the existing climate.
• Sal regenerates best under the canopy of Lagerstroemia parviflora, Emblica officinalis.
• Climax for any area is the product of locality factors (eeco-system) was said by Whittaker.
• Sub Climax and Biotic climax are synonyms.
• May to August is the main growing season.
• Seed dormancy: A condition of mature viable seeds in which germination is considerably delayed
even though external conditions favour germination. E.g. Fraxinus floribunda.
• After ripening: Bio-chemical of physical changes in seeds, bulbs, tubers and fruits after
harvesting when ripe in ordinary; often necessary for subsequent germination or growth. E.g.
Juniperus macropoda.
• Viability: The potential capacity of seed to germinate.
• Germinative capacity: The percentage, by number, of seeds in a given sample the actually
germinate irrespective of time.

• Germinative Energy: The percentage, by number, of seeds in a given sample that have
germinated up to the time when the rate of germination reaches its peak.
• Plant percent: Percentage of the number of seeds in a sample that develop into seedlings at the
end of growing season.
• Cassia fistula and Albizzia procera require light for germination.
• Seeds which are covered with soil to equal to half their diameter germinate best.
• Seedling year: A year in which a given species produce abundant first year seedlings.
• Sal seedlings start dying as soon as carbon dioxide and oxygen ratio reach 2:8 in soil.
• Nitrogen constitutes about 25% of the dry weight of plants.
• Lower the carbon- nitrogen ratio (best 10:1), greater is the amount of nitrogen converted in to
Ammonia.
• Light requirements increases with age.
• Strobilanthes and petalidium is very harmful for teak regeneration.
• Clerodendron is harmful for Sal regeneration.
• Parrotia is harmful for deodar regeneration.
• Viola canescens indicates favourable condition of natural regeneration of deodar and kail.
• Flemengia spp & Narenga porphyrocoma indicate favourable condition for Sal natural
regeneration.
• Mixed crop create favourable condition than pine.
• Sal & Chir regenerate poorly in their pure crops.
• Chir regenerates naturally in areas where grazing is common and fire is frequent.
• Advance growth: Seedlings, saplings, and poles of species of the over wood that have become
established naturally in a forest regeneration felling are started.
• The interval between seedling felling and final felling is called regeneration interval.
• Control fire to boost regeneration of Chir must be done in November or December but not after
February.
• Fire trace: A cleared line used as a base from which to counter fire.
• Felling cycle: The time that elapses between successive main felling on the same area.
• Selection felling: The annual or periodic removal of exploitable trees individually or in small
groups, in an unevenaged forest in order to realize the yield and establish a new crop irregular in
its constitution.
• Selective felling: The removal only of certain species of high value or trees above a certain size
and of certain species, without full regard to Silvicultural requirements.
• 1 or 2 trees are sufficient to supply seed for 1 ha. of Adina cordifolia.
• 30 to 40 in case of Sal.
• 8 but 12 to 15 are kept in case of Chir.
• 45 to 70 deodar in dry areas & up to 100 in moister areas.
• Coppice shoots are strong light demanders.
• The best season for coppicing is a little before growth starts in spring.
• Sowing strips are usually 45cm to 90cm wide.
• In high rainfall & temporary water logging areas ridge sowing is done.
• In patch sowing generally 15 to 25 cm deep patches are dug.
• In high rainfall areas patch sowing is done in mounds called mound sowing. The size of mound is
1.2m* 1.2m at top and 60cm* 60cm at base and 60cm higher than submergence level.
• In dry areas sowing is done in pits so is called pit sowing. Pits are usually 1.5m*1.5m*30cm.
• Dibbling: Sowing of seeds in shallow holes made with suitable instruments at regular interval.
Generally 8 to 10 cm deep.
• Spacing for Teak plantation is 1.8m*1.8m to 2.6m*2.6m.
• Sal is raised by line or strip sowing in spacing of 8 to 10 cm. The strips are spaced from 1.8to
3.6m.
• Simal is raised in space of 4.6m*4.6m to 11m*11m.
• Spacing for Eucalyptus is 2.4m*2.4m to 3.3m*3.3m.
• About 50% more seed should be collected than required.

• Slow growers are not sown directly in plantation, if sown; seedlings are swamped by weeds and
killed.
• Tall and sturdy plants are planted in roadside.
• Aldrex (5%) dust should be mixed in earth at the rate of 75kg/ha to prevent from white ant attack.
• Burning of dry grass and shrubs piled on beds is good for species having minute seeds. E.g. Adina
cordiflora.
• Irrigation is generally done in afternoon, but to prevent from frost and Damping off it is done in
morning.
• Damping off occurs when seedlings are crowded.
• Addition of little acetic acid, formal dehyde or 4% Copper sulphate in irrigation water prevents
damping off.
• Transplant: A seedling moved from one or more times in a nursery before permanently planting
it.
• Planting out: Transferring of nursery bed stock from seed bed directly to the planting site.
• Line out: Transplant seedlings from seedbed to rows, in a nursery.
• Prick out: To transplant small seedlings individually in to nursery bed or boxes.
• If seedlings are allowed to remain in seed beds for a long time they develop tap root.
• In order to develop compact bushy root system they are shifted from one place of nursery to
another.
• Staking out: Marking with stakes the position of plants in a plantation.
• To stake: To support plants with stakes against loosening by wind, snow etc.
• Generally soil is ploughed up to 20 – 25 cm.
• In sandy soils moisture occurs 30 cm below the surface.
• Ordinary pit: Used for planting in clayey and saline/alkaline soil in all rainfall classes & it also
minimises water logging.
• Saucer pit: Suitable for all loamy soils in all annual rainfall classes of dry zone.
• Ring pit: for Sandy soils.
• Small ridge pit: Suitable for areas towards moister part of dry zone and in loamy soils.
• Large ridge ditch: For low rainfall and deep soil condition.
• Sloped ridge ditch: Suitable for shallow soils with large number of rainy days.
• Half slanting ridge ditch: In low and ill distributed rainfall areas with friable soils.
• Deep slanting ridge ditch: In low and ill distributed rainfall areas with gravely, clayey, medium
to deep soils.
• Double slanting ridge ditch: Suitable for loamy to clayey soils with well distributed rainfall.
• 1 kg red lead is mixed with 10 kg of seeds if there is danger of birds, rodents or insects.
• In temperate zone seed sowing is generally done before snow falls.
• Spruce, Chirpine and most species of tropical deciduous forest should be sown in beginning of
rainy season.
• Natural seedlings growing in forest are called wild lings.
Method of planting Species Size (Height) Approx. age
Naked root deodar,cupresus
fir
walnut
Ash
20-25cm
20-25cm
50-60cm
25-30cm
2¼ years
4¼ years
1¾ years
1¾ years
Ball of earth including
container plants
Morus alba
Eucalyptus
Sissoo
Neem
1 meter
1.5 to 2 meter
2 to 2.5 meter
1.5 to 2 meter
9 months
9 months
3 1/3 years
1 year
Stump Teak collar dia. 1 to 2cm. 1 year.
• Ball planting: Planting of seedlings or young plants with a ball of earth of nursery soil
containing their roots without any disturbance to them.

• Beating up: restocking blanks in an artificially regenerated area with fresh sowings or
plantings. Also known as casualty replacement.
• Nurse crop: A crop of trees or shrubs grown to foster the growth of another and more
important tree crop in its early stages.
• Cover crop: A subsidiary crop of low plants introduced in a plantation to afford soil-cover
between or below the main crop.
• Under planting: Sowing or planting under an existing stand.
• Weed: Any unwanted plant that interferes or tends to interfere with the growth of the
individuals of the favoured species (Generally for up to 3 years).
• Cleaning: A tending operation done in a sapling crop, involving the removal or trapping of
inferior growth including individuals of favoured species, climbers etc, when they are
interfering with the better grown individuals of the favoured species. It merges with thinnings
as saplings grow into poles.
• Selective cleaning: cleanings done selectively round the stems forming the future crop.
• Planting requires less tending operations than sowing.
• Thinning shortens rotations.
• Thinning: Felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of improving the growth and
form of the trees that remain, without permanently breaking the canopy.
• Mechanical thinning/Stick thinning: In early stages when the canopy differentiation has not
taken place.
• Ordinary/low/German thinning: Commonly used, starts from suppressed class.
• Crown/French/High/Thinning from above: Starts from dominant trees in regular crops, the
less promising ones being removed for best available individuals.
• Free Thinning: Attention concentrated on evenly spaced selected stems (elites or alpha stems)
which are retained until maturity. Applied in young plantation where it is intended to achieve
rapid diameter growth to shorten the rotation.
• Maximum thinning: Numbers of trees limited to minimum so that it can fully utilize the
growing space. Also called heaviest form of free thinning.
• Advance/Craib thinning: A thinning done in a regular crop in anticipation of suppression.
Not suitable for light demander or tropical conditions.
• Selection thinning: In Regular crop.
• Improvement fellings: The removal or destruction of less valuable trees in a crop in the
interest of better growth of more valuable individuals. Usually applied to mixed unevenaged
forest.
• Prunning: Removal of dead branches or multiple leaders from standing trees for the
improvement of the tree or its timber.
• Leaves of Dispyros melanoxylon is used to make bidi.
• Horizontal projection on the ground of tree crown is called Crown cover.
• In Nepal, forests are better in far western region.
• Temperate forests are not deciduous.
• Sowing is successful in northern slopes in comparison to south facing slopes.
• Tropical species as well as broad leaved trees in temperate climate do not generally form
annual rings.
J.K.Jackson
• Topographically Nepal can be divided roughly in to 6 parallel zones.
• Duns are generally the valley of large rivers.
• The pH of Mustang area is eight or more.
• Shallow soils, hold very low reserves of water.
• Soil depth is the most important of all other properties.
• Sandy soils often hold less water than Clay.
• Nutrients tend to be associated with clay particles.
• Generally the water bound with Clays is unavailable for plants.
• Clayey Soils are poorly drained.

• Grasslands are often found in poorly drained clayey soils.
• Intermediate between clay & sand is loam.
• Most of soil of middle hills are loamy.
• Soil derived from limestone will tend have higher pH.
• Increased altitude (i.e. Lower temperature) will decrease Soil pH.
• Terai & Bhavar have pH of 7 and middle hills 5.4 (5 to6).
• Pines grow best in acidic soils.
• Poor drainage causes oxygen deficiency to roots.
• "Mottles" are more characteristic of soils which are water logged for only a part of year.
• Organic materials will bind soil particles & increase water holding capacity.
• The nitrate build up is rapid at the beginning of rains called "the nitrate flush".
• Less artificial forests; less susceptible to pests and diseases.
• Seed collected from a population of trees growing at a specific place and resembling a local
population is called "Provenance".
• The months which have rainfall less than twice the temperature is considered as dry month.
• The soil is capable of storing 150mm of water.
• Water deficiencies will be less severe on north facing slopes.
• The altitudinal limits of various species tend to be higher on south facing slopes than on north
facing slopes.
• In middle hills there are no natural forests.
• 35% of the cattle feed comes from forest.
• Pinus roxburghii is widely planted in Nepal because of poor site quality.
• Enrichment planting: Modifying the composition of existing forest by planting other species with
in it.
• In Nepal enrichment planting refers to gap planting.
• Mixed plantations highly resist insects and pests.
• Seed collected from adjacent areas of planting site gives good result.
• Seed is usually best collected from trees rather than collecting from ground.
• Seeds of Fraxinus floribunda should be extracted just before they mature as mature seed will
remain dormant for a year.
• Seeds of conifers are extracted by extracting under sun.
• Dry fruits which open to release the seed is called "capsule".
• Orthodox seeds can be successfully stored for a longer time than recalcitrant seeds.
• Great majority of seeds are orthodox and recalcitrant are an exception.
• Tectona grandis is the only species in Nepal whose seeds must be exposed to dry heat before
germination.
NURSERIES
• To raise pines a source of mycorrhiza soil will be needed.
• Southern aspect is preferable for nurseries above 1200m and in low elevations northern aspect is
preferable.
• Completely flat land should be avoided for nurseries.
• Ideal slope for nursery is about 5 degrees.
• From forest protection point of view nursery should be as nearly square as possible.
• For preparation of seed bed in slopes, terraces at least 2m wide must be made.
• The use of container raised stock reduces the risk of failure.
• Valuable species are planted as large ball rooted seedlings.
• Cuttings are genetically identical with parent trees (Generally used for Salix, Populus &Teak).
• In Nepal polypots of 3" *7" with eight 5mm holes are used.
• Soils except inoculated with Mycorrhiza must be sterilized.
• Many broad leaved species have Mycorrhiza which they readily obtain.

• The seedling stem is called the hypocotyl.
• Pine seedling should be pricked out as soon as the seed coat sheds from cotyledons.
• Broad leaved species need spacing earlier than pines.
• The change in colour of leaves from green to yellow due to lack of light is called "etiolation".
• Frequent root Prunning develops fibrous roots.
• For most species planting plants between 20cm to 30cm high gives better result.
• Temperature between 16°c to 18°c increases the speed of germination.
• The damping off fungi thrive in warm, humid and shady conditions, and in presence of organic
materials.
• Soil with high pH value (i.e. basic) will tend to encourage damping off.
• "Brown needle disease" (cercosepteria) is one of the most serious fungal disease of pines.
• Cockchafers are insects.
• The removal of weak, diseased, undersized, oversized or badly formed plants is called "culling".
• Fodder species must be planted in a spacing of5m*5m.
• Spacing of 2.5m*2.5m has become standard in Nepal.
• Sissoo is planted at a spacing of 4m*2m in Sagarnath.
• Spacing for Eucalyptus in Sagarnath is 4m* 1.7m.
• The planting lines must be parallel to contour line.
• The standard pit in Nepal is circular 30cm deep & 30cm diameter at the bottom.
• Refilling the pits must always be done the same day they are dug.
• In nearly all localities the safest time to plant is as soon as possible after the on set of monsoon.
• In Agro forestry tall crops should not be sown closer than 50cm from young trees and short crops
should be 25cm far from trees.
• The original spacing in Sagarnath was 3m*2m.
• Late frost damage more than early frost.
• Heavy fertilizing with Nitrogen increases susceptibility to frost damage.
• Frost lift usually occurs in bare root nurseries if they are on soil with high clay content.
• Salix spp, Albizzia procera, A. stipulata & Alnus nepalensis grow on badly soil but not on stiff
clays.
• Seedlings can use water of top one meter of soil only.
• March and April faces higher water deficiencies.
• Some poplar clones only thrive when summer days are longer.
• About 40% of seedlings mortality in plantations is due to wrong size or poor health of plants.
• In "spheroidal shaped" aggregates of soil infiltration, percolation and soil aeration is not affected
by wetting (E.g. Crumby).

FOREST PROTECTION
• Deforestation: Removal of tree crop, from a piece of land, without the intention of reforestation.
• Encroachment: Act of seizing possession of some forest land.
• Creeping fire: Fire spreading slowly over the ground with low flame. Occurs where soil has no
practical ground cover but covered by dry leaves.
• Ground fire: A fire that burns the ground cover only. It burns inside humus for days without
giving flames, in deodar forest where slash is not disposed off.
• Surface fire: A fire which burns not merely the ground cover but also undergrowth. Generally
occurs in plants.
• Crown fire: A forest which spreads through the crowns of trees and consumes all or part of the
upper branches and foliage. This usually occurs in coniferous forests.
• 37°c is the critical temperature for fire. Chance of fire increases with increase in this temperature.
• Early burning: Controlled burning as an insurance against later fire damage.
• Slash: The unusable residue after logging, also any large accumulation of debris after wind or fire.
• Extinguishing fire by beating is the best method.
• The last weapon to extinguish fire is by counter firing or preparing a fire trace.
• Carnivorous animals are very useful from the point of forest protection.
• Wild elephants are the most destructive than other wild animals.
• Elephant's proof trench is 2m wide at top, 1.2m at bottom and 2m deep.
• Wild pigs are very destructive in plantations and taungyas.
• To save pure crop plantation from pests they must be separated in blocks by strips of natural
forests.
• Premna latifolia and Vitex negundu in teak forest facilitates increase of Hyblea purea
• Callicarpa lanata and derodendron infortunatum aid in multiplication of Hapalis machaeralis and
teak canker grub Dihammus cervinus.
• Gap planting or sowing is susceptible to severe damage by grasshoppers, crickets and cutworms.
• Cedria paradoxa is the important parasite of teak insect pests.
• Mapalia macharelis is defoliator teak known as teak skeletonizer.
• Hyblea purea is teak defoliator.
• Defoliators and skeletonizers are insects.
• Oreina spp is defoliator of Utis.
• Defoliators of Cedrus deodara are called ectropis deodare.
• Predator of ectropis deodare is calasoma beesoni which increases population after control grazing.
• Defoliator of sissoo is plecoptera reflexa.
• Toon is attacked by defoliator named Hipsipyla robusta.
• Zuzera spp is stem borer of utis.
• Tonica niviferana is Simal shoot borer.
• Ips longifolia is bark borer of Pinus longifolia.
• Hoplocerambyx spinicornis is most serious pest of Sal as wood borer.
• Canker: - A definite, relatively localized necrotic lesion primarily of bark and cambium. It is a
symptom of disease.
• The decomposition of wood by fungi is called decay.
• Slowing of growth is Atrophic symptoms.
• Chlorosis is known as the effect to chlorophyll apparatus by atrophy.
• Abnormal growth resulting either from abnormal cell division or cell size is known as
Hypertrophic symptoms.
• Thinning increases pest resistance of trees.
• Eupatorium increases fire hazard.
• Peniophora gigantea protects pine stumps against Fomes annosus.

ROOT DISEASES
• Fusarium solani causes wilt in sissoo.
• Ganoderma lucidium causes root rot in sissoo.
• Sissoo grows well in drained sandy loam.
• Damping off is caused by a number of fungi i.e. Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Phytopthora, & Fusarium.
• Rhizoctonia solani is the mopst important cause of Damping off in nurseries.
• To protect Pine seedlings damping off only soil treatment should be carried out.
• Armillarea mellea causes root rot in mature fir and spruce.
• Fomes fomentarius, F robusta, F pini are heart rot fungi of Fir and Spruce.
• Fomes annosus causes mortality in young Deodar trees.
• F pini, F pinicola & Ganoderma applantum causes heart rot in chir.
• F pini commonly known as Trametes pini causes heart wood decay of Blue pine.
• To prevent decay of Blue pine; avoid looping.
• Ganoderma lucidium a root rot, causes heavy mortality in Khair plantation.
• Fomes badius causes heart rot in Khair.
• Serious destruction of sandalwood is caused by spike disease.
• Polyporus shorea causes root rot in Sal which is serious in high rainfall areas.
• Hymenochaete rubiginosa (most serious), F caryophylli, F fustuosus causes most of the heart rot in
Sal.
• Pseudomonas soianacearum causes wilt in Teak.
• Peniophora rhizomorpho-sulphurea & Polyporus zonalis causes root rot of teak.
• Sodium chlorate spray is successful in controlling lantana.
• 45°c to 55°c is lethal temperature for plants.
• Trees within 50m from river bank should not be removed.
• Selection or Shelterwood system is best from the view of forest protection.
• Wind can destroy Sal seed up to 100%.
• Live fence is 45cm wide & 45cm deep.
• Brushwood: pole to pole interval is 1.5m to 2m and branch woods are weaved.
• Stone wall: Dry stone masonry is 75 to90cm wide at base, 45to 60cm wide at top & 1.2to1.5m
high.

FOREST MANAGEMENT
• Felling series: A forest area forming the whole or part of working circle and delineated so as: (i) to
distribute felling & regeneration to suit local conditions and (ii) to maintain or create a normal
distribution of age classes.
• Annual coupe: A felling area, usually one of an annual series unless otherwise stated. Numbered
I, II, III etc.
• Regeneration period: The period required to regenerate the whole of periodic block.
• Felling cycle: The time that elapses between successive main fellings on the same area.
• Larger number of coupes, longer the felling cycle.
• Heavy intensity of felling in each coupe, less irregular the resultant generation.
• Age gradation: An age class with one year as interval.
• Growing stock: The sum (by number or volume) of all the trees growing in the forest or a
specified part of it.
• Sustainable yield is now replaced by progressive yield.
• For sustainable production of forest crops, soil condition should be kept healthy.
• Rotation or production period: The period which a forest crop takes between its formation and
final felling.
• Rotation strictly speaking, is applicable to regular crops only.
• Rotation period is equal to age of exploitable size.
• In irregular forest there is no relation between age and diameter.
• Physical rotation: Rotation which coincides with the natural lease of life of a species on a given
site.
• Silvicultural rotation: Through which a species retain satisfactory vigour of growth &
reproduction on a given site.
• Technical rotation: A rotation under a species yields the maximum material of a specified size.
• Rotation of maximum volume rotation: The age at which M.A.I. culminates & is common
practice.
• Rotation of highest income/Revenue (forest rental): The rotation which yields the highest
average annual gross or net return irrespective of capital; also called most profitable rotation.
• Financial rotation/Economic rotation: This yields the highest net return on the invested capital;
also called most profitable rotation.
• Rotation, in practice is carried out in age range within which the major crop will be harvested and
new crop started.
• Financial equivalent of MAI is MAF (mean annual forest product.)
• Stand table: A table showing the distribution of stem by diameter classes for each series of crop
diameters, often auxiliary to yield table.
• Rotations controlling the supply of certain services are Silvicultural and physical rotation.
• A change from one Silvicultural system or one (set of) species to another is conversion.
• The period during which a change from one Silvicultural system to another is effected is called
conversion period.
• Conversion period is usually less than rotation, but when equal; cannot be distinguished.
• Normal forest is ideal stage of perfection.
• Concept of normal forest was brought by German foresters.
• No virgin forests are normal.
• DE LIOCOURT'S LAW: percentage reduction in the stem number from one diameter class to
next is constant. OR Geometrical Progression.
• Mayer simplified DE LIOCOURT'S LAW.
• Increase in growth of tree or crop with age is called increment.
• A virgin forest will regain or maintain the climax volume only.
• A virgin forest may have negative increment.
• Short periodic Annual increment will be close to CAI.
• CAI is small in seedlings, reaches maximum and again declines.
• A tree will be in its maximum volume when MAI & CAI culminates.

• CAI is maximum before MAI.
• CAI has steep rise and steep fall than MAI.
• Increment can be found by stem-Analysis by means of a Presseler Increment Borer.
• Fast growing species may be poor in Mechanical qualities and produce more defective timber.
• CAI & MAI will only culminate twice.
• MAI of single trees vary but MAI of whole crop does not vary.
• In irregular forest normality cannot be tested by area, it has to be tested by volume or basal area.
• Growing stock is also called forest capital.
• Growing stock is determined by Enumeration.
• Regeneration interval: The period between seeding felling and final felling on a particular area,
usually a compartment under one of the Shelterwood system.
• Regeneration period: The period required to regenerate whole of periodic block.
• A plot representing larger area is known as sample plot.
• Photoperiod: The relative length of day & night to which the plant is exposed. Short days may
cause dormancy in Populus.
• Floristic: Refers to the species present in particular forest.
• Autumn tints: Change in colour of leaves before they are shed.

FOREST MENSURSTION
• Volume of tree is dependent upon diameter or girth at breast height, total tree or bole height and
form factor.
• The diameter of logs at thick end, thin end, and middle are represented by D, d &dm respectively.
• In Nepal, India, America, Africa dbh is taken at 1.37m.
• In Europe, U.K., & commonwealth countries dbh is taken at 1.30m (4'3"), also recommended by
F.A.O.
• Generally dbh is taken over bark.
• On sloping ground dbh should be measured from up hill.
• DBH of leaning trees of flat ground is taken along the axis.
• When the tree is forked below, dbh measurement is taken as of two trees.
• The length of rule of calliper is 120cm and length of arm must be half of the length of rule.
• Error rises with rise in angle in height measurement.
• Decrease in diameter of stem from base to apex is called Taper.
• The base of tree is Neloid, middle is paraboloid and tip is cone shaped.
• Metzger's theory is also known as girder theory.
• In artificial form factor basal area is taken at breast height and volume refers to both above and
below of measurement.
• In absolute form factor basal area is taken at any convenient point and volume refers above the
point of measurement.
• In normal form factor this basal area is taken at fixed proportion (1/10, 1/20 etc) & volume refers
to whole tree.
• Absolute & Normal form factor are discarded.
• The product of form factor and total height of tree is called form height.
• Normal form quotient is discarded & absolute form quotient refers to form quotient.
• In truck transportation logs are made 4.5m long, but for research only 3m logs are made.
Calculation of volume of logs:
• Paraboloid: (Si +Sii)/2 *L (Smallion's formula; over estimates)
• Sm*L (Huber's formula;under estimates)
• Cone: (Si+Sii +√ Si*Sii)/3*L
• Neilod: (Si+4Sm+Sii)/4 *L (Prismoidal or Newton's formula).
• Newton's formula in spite of being accurate is not practiced; it is used to check accuracy of all
other methods.
• Smalian's formula is used for stacked timber.
• Smalian's formula is an error than the others.
• Huber formula is used for individual logs and under estimates them.
• Quarter girth formula is also known as hoppus rules.
• Quarter girth formula is widely used in Nepal.
• Quarter girth method gives only 78.5% of true volume.
• Stacked volume is not actual volume of firewood.
• Root is sold on basis of weight.
• Local volume table have d.b.h. as only one variable.
• General volume table is based on two variables, d.b.h. and height. It gives average volume of trees
growing over a large geographical area.
• Standard volume table includes volume of stumps also.
• In mixed forest site quality cannot be determined.
• The portion of tree or stem which is unmerchantable is cull.
• Cull percent increases with increase in diameter after a certain limit.
• In most species specific gravity of wood decrease from top to bottom.
• Air dried wood has moisture content of 12%.

• The moisture content when free water has been evaporated leaving only absorbed water is called
fibre saturation point.
• Oven dry weight is obtained by drying at 103+/-2°c.
• Moisture content in heartwood of conifers is less than in sap wood.
• Biomass is the weight of the above ground vegetative matter produced per unit area.
• Due to low fertility and wrong selection of species branching takes place before tree reaches breast
height.
• Measurement of tree should be done in dormancy period.
• Sampling to estimate biomass is done in trees growing in border lines.
• Young trees have more tapering boles than old.
• Chir has conical crown in early stages and round in older stage.
• Old trees have smooth and dry coloured bark than young.
• Pressler's increment borer is used to determine age of trees which have annual ring.
• When tree gets heavily attacked by defoliator there may not from annual ring.
• Expression of increment from business view is increment percent.
• Map of R.F. 1:25000 is made for sample plot.
• Plot chart showing position of trees is prepared on R.F. 1:250.
• The age of regular crop corresponding to its crop diameter is known as crop age.
• The expected relative frequency with which an event takes place is called probability.
• Cruise and enumeration are synonyms.
• Total enumeration is done for valuable timber or forests; they are also carried out to check
statistical data of partial enumeration.
• Partial enumeration is expressed in percentage.
• There are two kinds of partial sampling, i.e. Random and non-random.
• In systematic sampling gaping are regular.
• Selective sampling is quickest and gives good approximation.
• Sequential sampling is used to test a hypothesis.
• When sampling units are of fixed area, it is necessary to describe their size.
• Small sampling units give more accurate results to larger.
• Low density forests are generally more heterogeneous in stocking.
• The size of sampling unit should be large enough to include at least 20 measurable trees.
• Circular plots have minimum number of border trees.
• Square and rectangular plots are mostly used in practice.
• Topographical units are mostly used as sampling units in hill forests.
• Clusters (group of sampling plots) have been used in low intensity survey.
• Precision is sampling error excluding bias.
• Standard error is such a measure of the expected magnitude of sampling error.
• Point sampling can be vertical or horizontal.
• Slope up to 18°is not corrected is point sampling.
• Spiegel relascope was basically developed to determine the basal area per hectare.
CANOPY DENSITY
• Close:- when density is 1.0
• Dense:- When density is between 0.75 to 1.0
• Thin:- When the density is between 0.5 to 0.75
• Open:-When the density is under 0.5
• In even aged forest canopy is rarely closed.
• Crown competition factor (c.c.f.) estimates the area available to the average tree in stand in
relation to the maximum area it could use; if it were open grown.
• Maximum crown area expressed as a percentage of one hectare is called Maximum Crown Area
(M.C.A.).
• C.V.P. index is climate, Vegetation and Productivity index.
• MAI of faster growing species culminates earlier.

• Denser the stand lesser the diameter growth.
• Height is least affected by density.
• Yield tables are used to Predict growth and yield.
• Basal area can be quickly determined by Wedge Prism.
• If the age of stand cannot be determined then crop diameter is taken as entry point to yield table.
• Volume given in yield table is per hectare.
• Trees grow faster in understocked condition.
• A table showing the distribution of stems by diameter classes for each of the series of crop
diameter is called stand table.
• The chances of error in calliper and tapes are in the ratio 21:1.
• Hypsometers are based on properties of similar triangles.
• Relaskop is used for measurement of basal area.
• Artificial form factor is also known as Breast height form factor.
• D.B.H is the most imp. Variable of all three.
• Boswellia serrata and Machilus dathiei do not show annual growth rings.
• Height growth generally starts and culminates earlier than radial growth.
• The only way to determine increment in trees without annual rings is to make periodic
measurement.
• Crop diameter is used for even aged pure crops.
• Mean diameter is used for any type of forest.
• Top height:-The height corresponding to the mean diameter, which is generally used to assess the
quality of locality.
• Mean or crop height is used to determine volume of crop.
• Mean age:- Average age of dominant trees in crop.
• Top age:- Age corresponding to the top diameter of a regular crop.
• Forest inventory of Nepal is "Systematic sampling with random start".
• In triangular plantation canopy is nearly closed.
• Height is the most important free characteristic to be used as an index of the site.
• Yield tables are not used in unevenaged forest.

SURVEYING
• The art of determining the relative positions of points on above or beneath the surface of the earth
are called surveying.
• The polar axis is shorter than equatorial axis by 42.95 KM.
• The surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane is called plane
surveying.
• The length of an arc 12 KM long in the earth's surface is only 1 cm greater than the subtended
chord.
• Difference between the sum of the angles in a plane triangle and the sum of spherical triangle is
only one second for a triangle at earth's surface having an area of 195 sq.km.
• The survey in which the shape of earth is taken in to account is called Geodetic survey. They
include work of large magnitude and high degree of precision.
• Geodetic surveying has larger distance between points than plane surveying.
• The basic principle of chain surveying in location of a point by measurement from two points of
reference & working from whole to part.
• The unit of plane angle is radian.
• The sexagesimal system is widely used in world.
• The representation is called "map" if the scale is small while it is called "plan" if the scale is large.
• On a plan, generally, only horizontal distance and directions are shown.
• 1cm on plan representing some whole number in ground is called engineer's scale (e.g. 1cm=
10m).
• The ratio of map distance to the corresponding distance is independent of unit of measurement is
called Representative fraction (R.F.)
• Graphical scale gives accurate results even if the paper shrinks.
• Plain scale gives two dimensions and diagonal gives 3 dimensions.
• Correct length= (R.F. of wrong scale/R.F. of correct scale)* measured length.
• Correct area= (R.F. of wrong scale/R.F. of correct scale)²* calculated area.
• Shrunk Scale = Shrinkage factor * original scale.
• Written records of field work made at the time of work done are called field notes.
• The error which under same conditions will be of same size and sign is called cumulative or
systematic error.
• The error which is beyond the ability of observer to control is called accidental or compensating
error.
• Metric chain: 5, 10, 20 & 30meters.
• Gunter's chain: 66ft, 100links, 1link = 0.66ft or 7.92 inch. Convenient to measure land (10 sq.
chains= 1acre).
• Engineer's chain: 100ft long.
• Revenue chain: 33ft long, 16 links. 1 link=2* 1/16. Used for measuring fields in cadastral surveys.
• Invar tape is used for high degree of precision.
• Arrows are 25 to 50cm long, generally 40cm & diameter of ring is 50mm.
• Plumb-bob is the common instrument to transfer the points to the ground.
• Indirect ranging is also called reciprocal ranging.
CORRECTION TO MEASURED LENGTH:
• True length of line(l)/Measured length of line(l')= Incorrect length of tape/Chain(L')/ Correct
length of tape/Chain(L)
CORRECTION TO AREA:
• True area(A)/Measured Area(A')= (L'/L)²
• Measurements over bridges and other super structures should be done in cloudy days or nights.
• In chain surveying only linear measurements are taken.
• Chain surveying is suitable for surveys of small extent in open ground.
• Main station of survey line should be in the beginning or end of survey line.

• Subsidiary or tie stations may be anywhere.
• The biggest of main survey line is called base line.
• Check lines, also known as proof lines, the accuracy of field work.
• A tie line helps to take details and sometimes also works as check line.
• In well proportioned triangle no angle must be small than 30° & greater than 120°.
• The best form of triangle is equilateral triangle.
• An offset is the lateral distance of an object or ground feature measured from a survey line.
• When the angle of offset is 90° it is called perpendicular offset and when other than 90° it is called
oblique offset.
• Compass surveying is done for larger areas.
• Whole Circle Bearing (WCB) is also known as azimuthal system.
• The quadrantal bearing system (qb) is also known as reduced bearing.
CONVERSION OF WCB IN RB:
BEARING VALUE QUADRANT
0° to90° RB= WCB NE
90° TO 180° RB=180° -WCB SE
180° TO 270° RB= WCB-180° SW
270° TO 360° RB= 360°-WCB NW
• CONVERSION OF RB IN TO WCB:
QUADRANT VALUE BEARING
NE WCB=RB 0° TO 90°
SE WCB=180° -RB 90° TO 180°
SW WCB= 180° +RB 180° TO 270°
NW WCB= 360° -RB 270° TO 360°
• BB=FB+/- 180° (+ve sign when FB is less than 180°)
• The angle which the lines of force make with the surface of earth is called "angle of dip".
• Prism in prismatic compass has the arrangement for focussing to suit different eye sights.
• Prismatic compass gives WCB reading (inverted letters).
• Prismatic compass is the most convenient and portable form of magnetic compass.
• In prismatic compass reading and sighting can be done without changing position of eye.
• In surveyor's compass sighting and reading should be done separately.
• Surveyor's compass gives reading in reduced bearing and the graduations are erect.
• Surveyors compass cannot be used without a tripod whereas prismatic can be.
• The term used to denote any influence, which prevents the needle from pointing to the magnetic
north in a given locality is called local attraction.
• A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal elevation.
• Contour line crosses valley at right angle.

WILDLIFE
• In Situ :-Conservation of wild life in their natural habitat.
• Ex Situ :-Conservation of wildlife outside natural habitat.
• The list of endangered species (only larger vertebrates) has reached 39.(27 mammals,9birds,3
reptiles.)
• Niche:-The functional role that an organism plays with community .(May be called profession)
• Carnivores animal do not facee food deficiency in comparison with herbivores.
• Presence of water is main attraction for wild animals to make habitat.
• The area that an individual uses all or most of its time for obtaining food ,mates and caring for its
young is called"home range".
• A behavioural trait through which an individual,a mated pair,or a social group of animals maintains
exclusive use of an area through active defense against other members of the species is
called"Teritory".
• Dispersion is the distribution of species population.
• Spreading out of animals for Survival is called Dipersal.
• The zone of contact between two or more habitat types(eg.Forest and Cultivated land)is called edge.
• The zone where two or more plant communities meets and integrates is transistion zone or"ecotone."
• Game species are abundant in edges.
• First National park was established in 1872 in USA(Yellow stone NP)
• Aldo Leopold is Known as father of wildlife management.
• IUCN was established in 1984.
• Wood Buffalo is largest National Park.
• Most work in wildlife was done in King Mahendra era.
• The youngest National park in Nepal is Shivpuri.
• Musk deer has largest geographic range.
• Hyaena hyaena is uncommon in forest.
• Wolf(canis lupus)is Considered as pest in Nepal for killing domestic stock .
• Largest deer found in Nepal is Cervus unicolor and found upto 10,000-12,000.
• Gestation period of "Jarayo"is 6 months.
• Colour of Swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli)changes according to season.
• Upto 30 females of Swamp deer lives with a male during gesitation period.
• Very common deer of Nepal is Chittal(axis axis)
• Laguna/Hog deer(Axis procinus )is found in terai with spotted deer.
• Barking deer(Muntiacus muntjak)lives from upto 8000ft.
• Barking deer uses upper canines for self defense.
• Kasturi Mirga/Musk deer (Moscus moshiferos) lives in birch forest above the line of pine.
• Musk deer does not have face glands.
• Musk pod develops in male at 3 years age and weighs 30-45 gms.
• Krishnasar/Blackbuck (Antelope cervicarpa) is found only in Khairapur of Bardia district.(Royal
bardia national park)
• Four horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) drinks water regularly.
• Jaws of python can open upto 180°.
• Fecundity is actual birth rate.
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• ;fdfGo lzsf/ cg'1fkqM ;a}nfO{ lbg ;lsg], dxfef/t >[vnfb]vL blIf0f df !% lbg / pt/df @! lbg;DdnfO{ tf]lsPsf] x'g], k|d'v
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k+IfL lzsf/ cg'1fkqM ;a}nfO{ lzsf/ v'Nnf ;do e/LnfO{ of] cg'1fkq lbg ;lsg] .
Sheep comes in "Bovidae" family
Blue sheep:-Pseudois nayaur (Gland between hooves)
Great tibetean sheep:-Ovis ammon hodgsoni
African elephant:- Loxodonta Africana

Bison/Gaur:- Bos gaurus (biggest of its type)
Gangetic dolphin:- Plantanista gangetica
Nilgai/Blue bull:- Boselaphus tragocamelus
Tibetian antelope/chiru:- Pantholops hodgsoni
Common leopard:- Panthera pardus
Clouded leopard:- Panthera unica
Tiger:- Panthera tigris
Wolf:- Canis lupus
Wild dog:- Cuon alpinus (Most deadly hunter)
Jackal:- Canis aureus
Indian fox:- Vulpes bengalensis
Himalayan black bear:- Salenarctos thiblanus
Sloth bear:- Melursus ursinus
Brown bear:- Ursus arctos
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Soil conservation
• Hydrology:- Science of water.
• Rain:- Liquid drops of 0.5 mm to 6 mm size.
• Measurement of evaporation is done by lysimeters.
• Discharge measurement:- Q = A* V, where Q = Discharge of runoff rate in volume per unit area, A
= Cross section at mid point section, V = Velocity of water ( V = L/t )
• Rill :- Depth not more that 30 cm.
• Gully:- Small gully 3 feet or less depth
Medium gully 3-15 feet
Large gully 15 feet or more
• U-shaped gullies: - Formed there where both surface and sub-surface soil gets easily eroded and
develops vertical walls.
• V-shaped gully:- Sub soil is not easily eroded.
• U and V shaped gully:- First v shaped and later U shaped.
• Mass movement is a type of geological erosion, or hill slope evolution.
• Saltation:- Movement of soil particles of 1 to 0.5mm in diameter by wind in a series of bounces or
jumps over the surface, most important process of movement of soil particles by wind.
• Surface creep:- Rolling of sliding of soil particles along the surface of the ground, pushed by forces
of wind and other particles moving with the wind. Most rolling particles are found to be in the size
range of 0.5 mm to 2.0 mm.
Rainfall intensity
Rainfall/hr Descriptive term
Less than 0.25 mm Gentle
0.25-0.50 mm moderate
0.50 to 2.00 mm heavy
Over 2.00 mm severe
• As rainfall intensity increases, so does the energy of storm both in number and size of drops.
• Soil with high silt content is erodible.
• Soils with a high content of base minerals are generally more stable.
• Soil erodibility decreases linearly with increasing organic matter content over the range of 0-10%.
• Soil properties that reduce detachability:-
High active organic matter content,
High clay content
Prevalence of divalent ions among the exchangeable cat ions.
High content of water stable aggregates.
High amount of microbial activity.
Intermediate moisture content at the beginning of storm.
• Slope over than 10 % may be the most serious factor encountered in growing cultivated crops.
• The amount of erosion per unit area increases 2.5 times as the degree of slope in doubled.
• Soil loss increases 1.5 times per unit area when the slope length is doubled.
• Slope may be concave or convex. Velocity decreases towards bottom in former and increases in
latter.
• The highest amount of erosion possible is from clean tilled fallow land ploughed at the beginning of
fallow period.
• A soil particle coming from an adjacent area on a piece of land which increases kinetic energy to
detach a particle from the area is called minimal-impact threshold velocity.
• The wind velocity required to start erosion without assistance of outside particles is called minimal
fluid threshold velocity. Depending upon given situation this is somewhere between 13 and 21
km/hr measured 15 cm above ground.
• Mucks erode easily because of their low density.
• The smoother and finer ground, greater is erosion hazard.
• Level land is more liable to erosion than rolling land.

• Seasonal agricultural practice increases soil erosion.
• 1cm of soil loss decreases land productivity by more than 1%.
• Delta formation (in reservoirs): The deposition starts at the commencement of back water curves,
and the shape of deposit is like delta.
• Narrow bench terrace are basically constructed to divert runoff.
• Terrace increase farm productivity by 20% to 30%.
• Broad bench terrace: Constructed on lands up to 10% slopes only. They are uncommon in Nepal.
• Level bench terrace: Suitable in Sandy loam soil where moisture needs to be conserved. A dyke
(20cm high) is provided at the edge.
• Outward sloping terrace: For high rainfall areas where sliding is a common problem. Also for
heavy Clay soils. Amount of soil work in this type of terrace is less than of other types.
• Conservation Bench terrace: A part of sloping land is left as such in between two benches.
Reduces cost of improvement & suitable for higher slopes. Similar to level bench terrace.
• Inward (reverse) sloped terrace: Suitable for heavy rainfall areas and soil with low permeability.
• Terraces should be built from top of hill to down hill.
• Shape of the slope of riser 0.75:1 (in case of soil riser.)
• Lose stone check dam: Suitable where slope is less than 30%.
• Gabion checkdam: wire gauge: 8 to 10.
Mesh openings: (10*10) cm – (15*15) cm.
• Dikes: Long embankments used parallel to river banks and are generally situated on the flood plains.
• Strip cropping is effective under mild rainfall and on gentle slopes from 7% to 12%.
• Land suitable for cultivation are from I to IV and V to VIII are lands limited in use, not suitable for
cultivation.
• Potential of the land use in specified ways, or with management particles is called capability.
• Land Characterstics, which have an adverse effect on capability.
• Capability class: That have the same relative degree of limitation or hazard. Indicated by roman
numerals.
• Capability sub class: Group of capability units that have the same major conservation problems.
• Capability units: Grouping of soil mapping units that have the same management responses. Units
shown by Arabic numbers.
• Land evaluation: A process of estimating the potential of land for alternative kind of uses.
• Purpose of land evaluation in to predict consequences of changes.
• Effective depth of more than 150cm is better for plants growth.
• In acidic soils, Al & Fe concentration is high & N & P will be less.
• In alkaline condition, availability Zn, Cu and P will be less.

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