Introduction to Biotechnology

1. Introduction to
Biotechnology
Biotechnology
• Bio = means life
• Technology = Procedures and mechanisms that are applied to
achieve particular goals
• The earliest tools were of materials that were easily shaped, such
as wood or bone

2. Biotechnology
• The term “biotechnology” was first used in 1917 by a Hungarian
engineer, Karl Ereky, to describe an integrated process for the
large-scale production of pigs by using sugar beets as the source of
food.
• “Biotechnology is concerned with the production of commercial
products generated by the metabolic action of microorganisms”.
• Biotechnology may be defined as
“The application of scientific and engineering principles to the
processing of material by biological agents to provide goods and
services.”

3. Introduction
• The term ‘biotechnology’ was used before the twentieth century for
traditional activities such as making dairy products such as cheese
and curd, as well as bread, wine, beer, etc.
• Classical biotechnology - The process of fermentation for the
preparation and manufacturing of products such as alcohol, beer,
wine, dairy products, various types of organic acids such as vinegar,
citric acid, amino acids, and vitamins can be called classical
biotechnology or traditional biotechnology.

4. Introduction
“Fermentation is the process by which living organisms such as
yeast or bacteria are employed to produce useful compounds or
products”.
• Modern biotechnology is similar to classical biotechnology in
utilizing living organisms.
So what makes modern biotechnology modern?
• It is not modern in the sense of using various living organisms, but
in the techniques for doing so.

5. • The introduction of a large number of new techniques has changed
the face of classical biotechnology forever.
• These modern techniques, applied mainly to cells and molecules,
make it possible to take advantage of the biological process in a
very precise way.
• For example, genetic engineering has allowed us to transfer the
property of a single gene from one organism to another.
Biotechnology- Definition
• According to United States National Science Academy,
“Biotechnology is the “controlled use of biological agents like cells
or cellular components for beneficial use”.
(It covers both classical as well as modern biotechnology)

6. “The use of living organisms, cells or cellular components for the
production of compounds or precise genetic improvement of living
things for the benefit of man”.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
• Biotechnology as a science is very new (about 200 years old) but as
a technology it is very old.
• The word biotechnology, first used in 1917, refers to a large-scale
fermentation process for the production of various types of
industrial chemicals.
• But the roots of biotechnology can be traced back to pre-historical
civilizations, such as Egyptian and Indus valley civilizations, when
man learned to practice agriculture and animal domestication.
• Even before knowing about the existence of microorganisms, they
had learned to practice biotechnology.

7. Biotechnology in
Prehistoric Times
• Primitive man became
domesticated enough to
breed plants and animals;
gather and process herbs
for medicine; make bread,
wine and beer.
• To create many
fermented food products
including yogurt, cheese,
and various soy products.
Bread yogurt
Cheese Wine

8. • To create “Septic systems” to deal
with digestive and excretory waste
products
• To create vaccines to immunize
themselves against diseases.

9. • Archeologists keep discovering earlier examples of the uses of
microorganisms by man, most of those processes date back to 5000
BC.
• Ancient Indus people, for example, prepared and used various
types of fermented foods, beverages, and medicines.
• The ancient Egyptians and Sumerians used yeast to brew wine
and to bake bread as early as 4000 BC.
• People in Mesopotamia used bacteria to convert wine into vinegar.
• Many ancient civilizations exploited tiny organisms that live in the
earth by rotating crops in the field to increase crop yields.

10. • The Greeks used crop rotation to maximize crop yield and also
practiced various methods of food preservation such as drying,
smoking, curing, salting, etc.
• All these techniques and processes were practiced in the Middle
East and Southeast Asia including ancient India.
• The Egyptian art of mummification used the technique of
dehydration using a mixture of salts
Use of Genetic Resources

11. • The ancient people were also aware of the role of
natural genetic resources such as plants in the
economic growth of a land.
• The rulers at those time used to send
plantcollectors to gather prized exotic species of
plants that produced valuable spices and
medicines.
• Likewise, in modern times, colonial powers
mounted huge plant-collecting expeditions across
Latin America, Asia, and Africa, installing their
findings in botanic gardens.
• These early ‘gene banks’ helped the colonial powers to establish agricultural
monocultures around the globe.

12. Microorganisms and
Fermentation
• Biochemical processes - less
than 200 years old.
• In the 17th century, Dutch
experimentalist Antonie Van
Leeuwenhoek discovered
microorganisms using his
microscope.
The chemical basis of the
process of fermentation using
analytical techniques for the
estimation of carbon dioxide.

13. • Two centuries later, in 1857, a French
scientist Louis Pasteur published his
first report on lactic acid formation
from sugar by fermentation.
A detailed report on alcohol
fermentation later in 1860, regarding
its complex physiological nature.
“Fermentation is the consequence of
anaerobic life”
Types of fermentation:
1. Fermentation, which generates gas;
2. Fermentation that results in alcohol;
and
3. Fermentation, which results in acids.

14. Fermentation- Cell-free
Extract of Yeast
• At the end of the nineteenth century,
Eduard Buchner observed the formation
of ethanol and carbon dioxide when
cellfree extract of yeast was added to an
aqueous solution of sugars.
• Cells are not essential for the fermentation
process.
• The components responsible for the
process are dissolved in the extract,
named
‘Zymase’.

15. • In Germany during World War I, Fermentation was modified to
produce glycerine for making the explosive nitroglycerine.
• Similarly, military armament programs discovered new
technologies in food and chemical industries, which helped them
win battles in the First World War.
• For example, they used the bacteria that converts corn or molasses
into acetone for making the explosive cordite.

16. The First
Antibiotic
Sir Alexander Fleming’s
discovery of penicillin in
1982, the first antibiotic,
proved highly successful
in treating wounded
soldiers.
The Genesis of
Genetics
• In 1906, biotechnology -
Gregor John Mendel

17. proposed the ‘Laws of Genetics’ and predicted the presence of ‘Units of
heredity’—later called Genes.
• The science of genetics derived from the term ‘genesis’, which relates to
the origin of something, tried to explain how organisms both resemble
their parents and differ from them.
• It was believed that every gene directly corresponds to a specific trait.
• By the 1920s, genetics was helping plant breeders improve their crops.
• By the 1940s, genetics had transformed the agriculture sector, which
led to the Green Revolution in the 1960s
DNA and Genetic Engineering—The Beginning of
Modern Biotechnology

18. • The discovery of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which carries the hereditary
information in the cells.
• The chemical DNA had already been discovered in 1869 by Friederich
Miescher but was not taken seriously as the chemical basis of genes until the
early 1950s.
• Two scientists, Francis Crick and James Watson along with Rosalind Franklin,
in 1953, discovered that the DNA structure was a double helix: two strands
twisted around each other like a spiral staircase with bars across like rings.
• The structure, function, and composition of DNA are virtually identical in all
living organisms—from a blade of grass to an elephant. What differs—and
makes each creature unique—is the precise ordering of the chemical base in
the DNA molecule.
• This gave scientists the idea that they might change this ordering and so
modify lifeforms. Marshall Nirenberg and H. Gobind Khorana carried out the
deciphering of the genetic code in 1961.

19. • Walter Gilbert carried out the first recombinant DNA experiments
in 1973,
• The first hybridomas created in 1975.
• The production of monoclonal antibodies for diagnostics was
carried out in 1982.
• The first recombinant human therapeutic protein, insulin
(humulin), was produced in 1982.
• In 1976, the U.S. company Genentech became the first biotech
company to develop technologies to rearrange DNA.

20. • Commercial uses of recombinant-DNA-assisted biotechnology
include the development of
Interferon,
Insulin, and
A number of genetically-modified crop plants such as the
highsolids-processing tomato that has 20% less water.
• Transgenic animals have been created such as the unfortunate
onco-mouse designed to develop cancer ten months after birth
to study cancer.
• The 1980 ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court allowed
geneticallyengineered microorganisms to be patented.
• This means that virtually any lifeform on this planet can
theoretically become the private property of the company or person

21. who ‘creates’ it. One of the greatest threats of the new biosciences
is that life will become the monopoly of a few giant companies
SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
• In the nineteenth century, the fermentation technology based
industries started to grow tremendously because of the high demand
for various chemicals such as
 Ethanol  Butanol
 Glycerine  Acetone
Fermentation Chemical Bioprocess
ProcessEngineeringTechnology
Bioprocess Technology

22. • Large-scale production of proteins and enzymes can be carried out
by applying bioprocess technology in fermentation.
• Applying the principles of biology, chemistry, and engineering
sciences, processes are developed to create large quantities of
chemicals, antibiotics, proteins, and enzymes in an economical
manner.
• Bioprocess technology includes media and buffer preparation,
upstream processing and downstream processing.
Bioprocess Technology
• Upstream processing provides the microorganism the media, substrate,
and the correct chemical environment to carry out the required
biochemical reactions to produce the product.

23. • Downstream processing is the separation method to harvest the pure
product from the fermentation medium.
Thus, fermentation technology changed into biotechnology, now
known as classical biotechnology.

25. rDNA Technology- production of industriallyimportant
enzymes and chemicals
• Recombinant microorganisms, plant cells, and animal cells can be cultivated
and used for the large-scale production of industrially-important enzymes and
chemicals.
• Examples of such enzymes are protease, amylase, lipase, glucose isomerase,
invertase, etc.
• Amylase is used in the starch industry.
• Glucose isomerase is used in fructose formation from glucose syrup.
• Proteases and lipases are incorporated into detergent products to take out
stains.
• Protease is also used in the meat and leather industries to remove hair and
soften meat and leather.

26. Some major industrial
enzymes and their sources
and uses
• Since the manufacturing of
human insulin using
recombinant e. coli began in
1982, many other proteins (for
human and veterinary
therapeutics, vaccines, and
diagnostics) have been
manufactured.
• Today, there are a large number
of human therapeutic proteins
or vaccines made by modern
biotechnology methods,

27. approved by the government and marketed in the country.
• Besides more than 200 other human therapeutic and vaccine proteins are at
clinical trial stage. Products are being tested to target diseases such as cancer,
AIDS, heart disease, multiple sclerosis, Lyme disease, herpes, rheumatoid
arthritis, and viral diseases.
• Products are also being developed to reduce bleeding from surgical
procedures, aid in wound healing, and prevent organ-transplant rejection.
• It is difficult to predict the future of this exciting new field of modern
biotechnology.
• There is no doubt about its ability to improve the human life and
the economy of the world. But along with the advancement in the
research and development of life sciences and biotechnology, arise
several social, environmental, and ethical problems. Several

28. organizations are looking into various issues and addressing the
general concerns.
• Division of biotechnology into different areas such as agricultural
biotechnology, medical or pharmaceutical biotechnology,
industrial biotechnology, and environmental biotechnology.
Developments In The History Of Biotechnology
• Date - Event
• 1917 Karl Ereky coins the term “biotechnology”
• 1940 A. Jost coins the term “genetic engineering”
• 1943 Penicillin is produced on an industrial scale
• 1944 Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty demonstrate that DNA is the genetic
material

29. • 1953 Watson and Crick determine the structure of DNA
• 1961 The journal Biotechnology and Bioengineering is established
• 1961–1966 Entire genetic code is deciphered
• 1970 First restriction endonuclease is isolated
• 1972 Khorana and coworkers synthesize an entire tRNA gene
• 1976 First guidelines for the conduct of recombinant DNA research are
issued
• 1973 Boyer and Cohen establish recombinant DNA technology
• 1975 Kohler and Milstein describe the production of monoclonal
antibodies
• 1976 Techniques are developed to determine the sequence of DNA
• 1978 Genentech produces human insulin in E. coli

30. • 1980 U.S. Supreme Court rules in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty that
genetically manipulate microorganisms can be patented
• 1981 First commercial, automated DNA synthesizers are sold
• 1981 First monoclonal antibody-based diagnostic kit is approved for use in
the United States
• 1982 First animal vaccine produced by recombinant DNA methodologies is
approved for use in Europe
• 1983 Engineered Ti plasmids are used to transform plants
• 1988 U.S. patent is granted for a genetically engineered mouse susceptible
to cancer
• 1988 PCR method is published
• 1990 Approval is granted in the United States for a trial of human somatic
cell gene therapy

31. • 1990 Human Genome Project is officially initiated
• 1990 Recombinant chymosin is used for cheese making in the United States
• 1994–1995 Detailed genetic and physical maps of human chromosomes are
published
• 1994 FDA announces that genetically engineered tomatoes are as safe as
conventionally bred tomatoes
• 1995 First genome sequence of a cellular organism, the bacterium
Haemophilus influenzae, is completed
• 1996 First recombinant protein, erythropoietin, exceeds $1 billion in
annual sales.
• 1996 Complete DNA sequence of all the chromosomes of a eukaryotic
organism, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is determined
• 1996 Commercial planting of genetically modified crops begins

32. • 1997 Nuclear cloning of a mammal (a sheep) with a differentiated cell
nucleus is accomplished
• 1998 FDA approves first antisense drug
• 1999 FDA approves recombinant fusion protein (diphtheria toxin–
interleukin-2) for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma
• 2000 Arabidopsis genome is sequenced
• 2000 Monoclonal antibodies exceed $2 billion in annual sales
• 2000 Development of “golden rice” (provitamin-A-producing rice) is
announced
• 2000 Over $33 billion is invested in U.S. biotechnology companies
• 2001 Human genome is sequenced
• 2002 Complete human gene microarrays (gene chips) become
commercially available

33. • 2002 FDA approves first nucleic acid test system to screen whole blood
from donors for HIV and HCV
• 2004 Large-scale sequencing of the Sargasso Sea metagenome begins
• 2005 NCBI announces that there are 100 gigabases of nucleotides in the
GenBank sequence database
• 2006 Recombinant cancer vaccine becomes available to protect against
cervical cancer
• 2008 Two-billionth acre of genetically engineered crops is planted
• 2009 FDA approves first drug produced in a genetically engineered animal
(a goat)
Interdisciplinary Pursuit

34. • Division of biotechnology into different areas such as agricultural
biotechnology, medical or pharmaceutical biotechnology,
industrial biotechnology, and environmental biotechnology.

35. Colors of Biotechnology
• Blue biotechnology
• Green biotechnology • Red biotechnology
• White biotechnology
Blue Biotechnology
• It is used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology.

36. • Its use is relatively rare.
• It plays a major role in aquaculture, or fish
farming.
• High-quality fish foods, disease resistance, species
diversification, and environmental impact are all
aspects of aquaculture.
Green Biotechnology

37. • It is commonly known as Plant Biotechnology which applied to agricultural
processes produce more
environmentally friendly solutions
alternative to traditional industrial
agriculture.
Green biotechnology
• Green biotechnology is defined as the application of biological
techniques to plants with the aim of improving the nutritional
quality, quantity and production economics.

38. • The most recent application of biotechnology in respect to this area
is genetic modification, also known as genetic engineering, genetic
manipulation, gene technology and/or recombinant DNA
technology.
• Use of bio fertilizers and bio pesticides to reap more benefits and
avoid the chemical pesticides having pollutants.
• Reduce the risk of environmental issues.
Example of Green Biotechnology
• Biotech cotton : (BT Cotton)

39. • Biotechnological companies are using the
soil bacterium Bacillus thuringenesis (Bt),
to produce a Bt toxin gene to splice into
cotton.
• The toxin eats into the gut of pests and
kills them.
Red Biotechnology

40. • It refers to the use of organisms for the
improvement of medical processes.
• It includes the designing of organisms to
manufacture pharmaceutical products like
antibiotics and vaccines.
• It includes Production of medicines and
pharmaceutical products for treating or
diagnosing disorders.
Examples of Red
Biotechnology
• Production of human insulin from non- human sources.

41. • Production of hormones like Interferons, Cytokines, Steroids and
human growth hormones.
• Gene therapy for prevention and control of diseases.
• Development of vaccines and antibodies.
White Biotechnology
• It is applied to industrial processes.
• It is the designing of an organism to produce useful chemicals i.e
enzymes/proteins.
• The use of biological methods to optimize industrial processes.
• Applied by manufacturersof laundry detergents it includes
research for new enzymes/proteins that remove oily and protein
based stains.

42. • This often entails modifying the enzymes of microorganisms for
these processes.
• Use of microorganisms to control insect pests, and the biological
agents employed for this purpose are called biocontrol agents.
• Used as bioinsecticides and bioherbicides
• Used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by
industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce
biological weapons.

43. Benefits of White Biotechnology
• Low input of substrate.
• High rate of output.
• Friendly to environment.
• Renewable.
• Increased efficiency.
Applications of Biotechnology
• Biotechnology has applications in four major areas, including

44. Medical
Agriculture
Environmental
Industrial
Applications of Biotechnology
• Medical
Diagnostic
Therapeutics
Vaccines
• Agriculture

45. Agriculture Crop yield
Animal Health
Food Quality
Applications of Biotechnology
• Industrial
Waste treatment
Fermentation
Microbes used to obtain a product
Production of biocontrol agents & metabolites

46. Applications of Biotechnology
• Environmental
Bioremediation
Bioleaching
Pollution prevention
Biotransformation