The creation of the english language version of these publicat

The creation of the English-language version of these
publications is Þ nanced in
the framework of contract No. 607/P-DUN/2018 by the Ministry
of Science and
Higher Education committed to activities aimed at the
promotion of education.
* Marcin Nowak – dr in ., Faculty of Engineering Management,
Poznan University of Technology.
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5005-7820.
** Joanna Ziomek – mgr in ., Faculty of Engineering
Management, Poznan University of Technology.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7750-0527.
Correspondence address: Faculty of Engineering Management,
Poznan University of Technology, 11 Strze-
lecka Str., 60-965 Pozna , Poland; e-mail: [email protected];
[email protected]
Problemy Zarz dzania – Management Issues, vol. 17, no. 2(82):
142 –154
ISSN 1644-9584, © Wydzia Zarz dzania UW
DOI 10.7172/1644-9584.82.7
Intuitive and Rational Cognition
in the Theory and Practice of Management Sciences

Submitted: 11.01.19 | Accepted: 26.03.19
Marcin Nowak*, Joanna Ziomek**
The aim of this study is to explain the role of rational and
intuitive cognition in the theory and practice
of management. The ar ticle presents a synthetic review of
definitions and ways of interpreting the
concept of intuition. Subsequently, a conceptual apparatus for
rational judgments, intuitive judgments,
and intuition as a special type of skills is proposed. On the basis
of the four-stage model of the creative
process and the model of System 1 and System 2, the role of
intuition in the work of management
theoretician is explained. Using the four-stage model of
competence, the role of intuition in the process
of making managerial decisions is explained. The study shows
that intuition is a key skill in the theory
and practice of management.
Keywords: intuition, intuitive judgment, intuitive cognition,
managerial decisions, epistemology of
management sciences.
Poznanie intuicyjne i rozumowe w teorii i praktyce nauk
o zarz dzaniu
Nades any: 11.01.19 | Zaakceptowany do druku: 26.03.19

Celem niniejszego opracowania jest wyja nienie roli poznania
rozumowego i intuicyjnego w teorii i praktyce
zarz dzania. W artykule przedstawiono syntetyczny przegl d
definicji i sposobu interpretowania poj cia
intuicji. Nast pnie zaproponowano aparat poj ciowy dotycz cy s
dów rozumowych, s dów intuicyjnych
oraz intuicji jako szczególnego typu umiej tno ci. W oparciu o
czterofazowy model pracy twórczej oraz
modele systemu 1 oraz systemu 2 wyja niono rol intuicji w
pracy teoretyka zarz dzania. Pos uguj c
si czterofazowym modelem kompetencji, wyja niono rol
intuicji w procesie podejmowania decyzji
kierowniczych. W opracowaniu wykazano, e intuicja stanowi
kluczow umiej tno zarówno w teorii,
jak i w praktyce zarz dzania.
S owa kluczowe: intuicja, s d intuicyjny, poznanie intuicyjne
decyzje kierownicze, epistemologia nauk
o zarz dzaniu.
JEL: D20, M20, B40
Intuitive and Rational Cognition in the Theory and Practice of
Management Sciences

Management Issues – Problemy Zarz dzania vol. 17, no. 2(82),
2019 143
1. Introduction
One of the most important issues in the area of management
science
is the decision-making process (Simon, 2013), (Sinclair &
Ashkanasy,
2005). Managers must make decisions under the pressure of
time, in the
absence of recognized algorithms for resolving management
problems, or
the lack of standards for the assessment of measures taken
(Laszczak,
2010). Therefore, the decision-making process takes place in
conditions of
permanent uncertainty, which manifests itself, inter alia, in
limited amounts
of information or incomplete data (Hodgkinson et al., 2009).
Authors exploring the subject claim that managers perceive
their work
more as art than science (Su kowski, 2015; Micklethwait &
Wooldridge,
1996; Sudo , 2014). One of the fundamental reasons for this
status quo
is the inadequacy of the management theory in relation to
problems
faced by management practitioners in the decision-making
process. In the
practice of management, intuition plays the key role – the use of
classical
management theory based on analytical processes which require
a lot of
information becomes limited (Akinci & Sadler-Smith, 2012). It

seems that
the perception of intuition is the primary cause of the
discrepancy between
the theory and practice of management (Ghoshal, 2005). It is
often stated
that while intuition can be a tool for a manager, theoretician
should abstain
from using it. Management theorists often perceive intuition as
unspecified
and irrational. Intuition is, however, an important cognitive tool
for both
managers and management theoreticians. This study presents
intuition as
a common feature of management practitioners and
theoreticians.
The article explains the role of intuition in the theory and
practice
of management. Through exploring the similarities and
differences in the
perception of intuition by theoreticians and practitioners of
management in
the context of their work, we can contribute to a better
understanding and,
consequently, to reducing the discrepancy between the theory
and practice
of management. Considering the above, the aim of this study is
to explain
the role of rational and intuitive cognition in the theory and
practice of
management. This objective shall be pursued through the
application of
the following methods and models:
– conceptual construction methods – in order to develop an
appropriate

terminology of intuition;
– a four-stage model of the creative process and a model of
System 1 and
System 2 – to explain the role of intuition in the work of a
theoretician
of management;
– a four-stage model of competence and a model of System 1
and
System 2 – to explain the role of intuition in the work of a
management
practitioner.
The article is organized as follows: Section (1) presents the
theoretical
problem related to the use of intuition in the theory and practice
of
144 DOI 10.7172/1644-9584.82.7
Marcin Nowak, Joanna Ziomek
management. Section (2) contains a synthetic overview of
definitions and
interpretations of the concept of intuition. In section (3), on the
basis of
the traditional theory of knowledge, the concepts of rational
judgment and
intuitive judgment are defined and presented as two components
of the
knowledge of the subject of cognition. Subsequently, our own
definition
of intuition as a specific type of skills is presented. Section (4)

explains
the role of intuition in the work of the theoretician of
management on
the basis of the four-stage model of the creative process and the
model
of System 1 and System 2. Section (5) explains the role of
intuition in the
decision-making process in management practice on the basis of
the four-
stage model of competence and the model of System 1 and
System 2. In
section (6), research results were summarized and further
research directions
are indicated.
2. The essence of intuition
The word ‚intuition’ comes from two Latin words: ‚intueri’,
meaning to
look at, gaze upon, and ‚intuitio’, meaning premonition (Kr
piec, 2003).
Intuition is the subject of interest in many fields of science,
including
philosophy, psychology, cognitive science, or neurocognitive
science. The
concept of intuition occurs in literature as a word defining the
type of
cognition, the type of knowledge, or the power of the mind
enabling
a specific type of cognition (Rorty, 1967).
One of the basic philosophical approaches is to treat ‚intuition’
as
a specific cognitive tool. According to Plato, intuition is an
extra-rational
tool enabling people to get to know the world of ideas. Plato

distinguished
two types of reality – a perfect and unchangeable world of
ideas, and an
imperfect and changeable physical world. According to Plato,
intuition is
a kind of bridge between the two worlds. Knowledge that has no
sources in
rational cognition is the effect of intuition (Wolfsdorf, 2011).
Descartes, on
the other hand, indicates that intuition is, despite reason, a
component of
the intellect. Intuition in this sense is a tool of direct cognition,
which does
not require either perception or the use of reasoning methods.
Intuition is
the opposite of reason, itself the tool of indirect cognition,
which requires
perception and necessary reasoning (Descartes, 2018). Leibniz
divided the
objects of cognition into two categories: necessary truths and
contingent
truths. Examples of necessary truths include certain
mathematical axioms,
identity relation or contradictions. According to Leibniz,
learning necessary
truths is possible only through intuition. Thus, according to
Leibniz, intuition
is a cognitive tool that enables us to learn necessary truths. I.
Kant, however,
perceived intuition differently. According to Kant, intuition
belongs to
senses, not mind. Sensory intuition is a cognitive tool in the
sense that
it enables the mind to develop concepts that become the object
of the
synthesis of reason. In addition to sensory intuition, Kant also

distinguished
Management Sciences
2019 145
the so-called pure form of intuition, which included two a priori
forms of
sensibility – time and space (Thompson, 1972). For E. Husserl,
intuition is
the source of knowledge. Reasoning without intuition is not
possible because
intuition is its foundation, as is provides premises for
reasoning. According to
E. Husserl, the role of intuition in cognition prevails over
reason. A similar
position on the role of intuition in the process of cognition is
expressed
by J.M. Boche ski, who distinguishes two types of intuition.
The first is
intuition preceding reasoning, and the second is intuition
manifested in the
vision of the entire system created in the process of reasoning.
According
to C.G. Jung, intuition is a kind of organ that functions outside
of the
person’s consciousness. Intuition is an opposition to reason,
functioning on
the level of consciousness. C.G. Jung attributed to intuition a
role that was
superior to the role of reason in creative processes. In this
sense, intuition

is a necessary basis for the creative process, without which
reason remains
useless (Dane & Pratt, 2007).
Intuition is an important subject of interest for representatives
of
management sciences (Khatri & Ng, 2000). One of the first
researchers in
this discipline who undertook to define and interpret the
concept of intuition
was Ch. Barnard. In the 1930s, he proposed two ways of
decision-making
– logical and non-logical (Agor, 1989). The logical process of
decision-making
was based on reasoning expressed in words or symbols. The
non-logical way
of making decisions cannot be expressed in words. This is a
reasoning that
can only be learned by making a decision, expressing judgment,
or as the
effects of an action. In the opinion of Ch. Barnard, non-logical
decisions
are the result of intuition. According to W.H. Agor, intuition is
a way of
thinking at the interface of consciousness and unconsciousness
(Agor, 1989).
This mechanism is launched in the face of the decision-making
situation,
giving ready answers. H. Simon states that decision-making
processes are
twofold. In this process, two mechanisms are used – analytical
thinking
and intuitive thinking. H. Simon treats intuition as a rational
process,
based on the work of the mind, which searches memory and
previous

experiences in aim to find analogies to current decision
problems (Simon,
2013). I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, however, propose the
concept of tacit
knowledge as an opposition to explicit knowledge (Nonaka et
al., 2009).
Tacit knowledge consists of three elements: intuitive
knowledge, instinctual
knowledge and emotional knowledge. J. Parikh points out that
intuition is
a form of intelligence whose source lies in cumulative
experience beyond
the consciousness of the subject. The results of the operation of
intuition
are ready assessment and decisions (Parikh, 1994). Currently,
an increasing
number of management science studies explores the subject of
intuition,
especially in relation to such issues as (Laszczak, 2010):
– decision-making procedures in an organization;
– intuitive abilities of managers;
– the impact of intuitive decisions on the organization's
effectiveness;
146 DOI 10.7172/1644-9584.82.7
– factors influencing the intuitive way of making decisions;
– presence of intuition in making decisions at various levels of
management.
3. Intuition as a skill

On the grounds of epistemology, the starting point to define the
word
‘knowledge’ is the analysis of the sentence: S knows that P (
ukasiewicz,
2018). Knowledge is most commonly defined as justified true
belief (JTB).
In accordance with the presented conception S knows that P, if
and only if:
1. S believes that P.
2. P is true.
3. S is justified in believing that P (Gettier, 2017, pp. 69–70).
Literature points to the disadvantages of the JTB concept,
mainly related
to the condition of truth (condition 2) and the condition of
justified belief
(condition 3). One of the most important objections to the truth
condition
of knowledge is the lack of universal consent in terms of the
definition of
truth. It is even commonly believed that formulating a
definition of truth
is, in principle, impossible. The presented situation is a strong
premise to
exclude the truth condition from the definition of knowledge. In
the case
of adopting ex cathedra one of the concepts of truth, such as the
consensus
theory of truth (conventionalism), in which true statements are
considered
to be true when the majority of specialists in a given field
consider them as
true, a fundamental problem appears. It is based on the
discrepancy between
the common use of the word ‘know’ and the assumed concept of
truth.

It is, thus, impossible to eliminate from common use statements
such as:
– I know that the Earth is flat;
– I know that you can cure cancer using vitamin C;
– I know that there exists a perpetual motion machine.
In the context of the consensus theory of truth, all of the
indicated
statements are obviously untrue. On the one hand, an individual
who
utters such sentences is, on the whole, convinced of their truth
and may
consider them as components of his/her knowledge. On the
other hand,
external observers usually consider all of the above sentences as
untrue and,
on this basis, they call such knowledge untrue. The common use
of the
statement “I know that…” shows, therefore, the existence of
two types of
knowledge – true and false. A separate group contains sentences
such as:
“God exists”, the truth of which seems to be unverifiable on the
grounds
of the correspondence theory of truth. Although people who
recognize
such a judgment are often not conscious of the impossibility of
verifying
its truth, they consider it as a component of their knowledge
(often one of
great importance for them). Regardless of the adopted concept
of truth, it
should be recognized that, in its common use, the concept of
knowledge
is not immanently attributed to the truth condition. Thus,
authors of this

article decided to propose a concept of knowledge devoid of a
necessary
Management Sciences
2019 147
truth condition. It is also assumed that the statement according
to which
one of the conditions of knowledge is a sufficient justification
of a given
sentence (P) by the subject of cognition (S) is in disagreement
with the
common use of the word ‘know’. We often witness situations in
which
the subject claims: “I know this and that, though I do not know
why.”
Such a situation is sometimes described as intuition or the sixth
Sense.
It was assumed that the statement that these types of judgments
are not
the subject’s knowledge seems to be incompatible with the
common sense
and common meaning of the word ‘know’. Thus, a concept of
knowledge
devoid of the necessary condition of both truth and sufficient
justification
is proposed in this article.
The classical definition of knowledge understood as Justified
True Beliefs,
devoid of the two conditions, i.e. truth and sufficient

justification, amounts
to a set of believes. As a result, the following definition of
knowledge is
proposed (Nowak, 2019):
Definition 1. Knowledge is a set of judgments about the reality
of the
subject of cognition
Judgment is understood as a sentence containing statements
about
reality. Thus, both an interrogative sentence and an imperative
sentence
do not meet the requirements of knowledge. If a subject asks a
question,
provided that it is not a rhetorical question, then his/her
intention is to
acquire knowledge. If, on the other hand, one formulates a
command, (s)he
intends to influence reality rather than to make statements about
it. Another
issue to consider is the origin of judgments, i.e. on what basis
the subject of
cognition makes certain statements. Basically, two types of
judgments can
be distinguished (on the basis of the criterion of origin):
judgments based
on other judgments of the subject of cognition and judgments
not based
on other judgments of the subject of cognition. This assumption
enables
us to formulate the definition of logical judgment and intuitive
judgment.
Definition 2. Logical judgment is judgment based logically on
other

judgments of the subject of cognition
Judgment which is logically justified on the grounds of other
statements
of the subject of cognition can also be called rational judgment.
Definition 3. Intuitive judgment is judgment not based on other
judgments
of the subject of cognition
As intuitive judgment is not based on other judgments, it is
judgment
without logical justification, thus it is alogical judgment. Each
subject of
cognition has a certain set of judgments at a given moment –
some of them
can be classified as rational judgments, and some as intuitive
judgments.
Both types of judgment form the knowledge base of the subject
of cognition.
Every subject of cognition, apart from knowledge, possesses a
certain set of
skills. Skills associated with making logical judgments (the
ability to think
logically) are a component of the intellect. The conducted
analysis allows
us to define intuition as a specific type of skills.
148 DOI 10.7172/1644-9584.82.7
Definition 4. The ability to form intuitive judgments is called
intuition

The indicated definition does not refer to the accuracy
(compliance with
reality) of intuitive judgments. However, it does not seem
necessary. There
exists a group of intuitive judgments whose accuracy or
compliance with
reality at the given moment are impossible to determine. An
example of this
type of judgment is any forecast. Not assigning accuracy or
compliance with
reality to intuition also seems consistent with the common
understanding of
intuition. In everyday speech, we commonly refer to good or
bad intuition.
Good intuition characterizes a person who has the ability to
form accurate
intuitive judgments. On the other hand, a person whose intuitive
judgments
are generally inaccurate is said to have bad intuition
The juxtaposition of the theory and practice of management, in
the context of the occurrence of different types of cognition
(rational
and intuitive), requires prior definition of the concepts of
practice and
theory. A reflection of reality in the form of a system of
sentences can
be called a theory (Pszczo owski, 1978, pp. 182). A scientific
theory is
a particular type of theory. A scientific theory can be
understood as
a system of sentences making a statement about a certain object
of
reality characterized simultaneously by the combined
occurrence of three

attributes: intersubjective communicability, intersubjective
verifiability,
and cognitive or utilitarian validity. Practice, on the other hand,
is the
field of human activity that consists in changing a certain object
of reality
(Pszczo owski, 1978, pp. 182). The logical consequence of the
adopted
conceptual apparatus is that the process of developing the
theory is also
a practice. Such an action is, in itself, also a change of reality,
for example
through writing with ink on a white card. At the same time, the
creation
of theory (as practice) is not theory. Theorizing (practice) is a
certain
activity whose effect is a theory. Theory as a system of
sentences reflecting
a chosen object of reality creates a resource of the subject of
cognition,
which is called knowledge. The resource of the subject, created
as a result
of practice, becomes skills.
4. Intuition in management theory
The subject of Section 4 is the analysis of the action that
consists in
the creation of a scientific theory, including the participation of
rational
and intuitive cognition. The aim of a theoretician is to develop a
scientific
theory (including management theory). The theoretician’s
means of action
are knowledge and skills. It has been assumed that the action of
developing

a scientific theory is of a creative nature. This is due to the fact
that this action
consists in formulating and verifying new judgments
(previously unknown to
science). In the presented context, the development of a
scientific theory
can be presented as a creative action consisting of the following
stages
(Sadler-Smith, 2015):
Management Sciences
2019 149
– Preparation – involving an expansion of the knowledge base
on the
subject of the theory;
– Incubation – when the subject of the theory remains beyond
the scope
of conscious reasoning;
– Illumination – making judgment that are not based on other
known
judgments using logical reasoning;
– Verification – confirming a given judgment through its logical
justification
in comparison to other previously recognized logical
judgements.
The effect of the third stage of the creative process model is
judgment

that can be called an idea. The mechanism of reaching such
judgments is
called heuristic. From the point of view of the objectives of this
article, the
problem of the mechanism of idea formulation will be omitted,
whereas the
effect of this mechanism in the form of an idea shall be
analyzed. This idea
constitutes judgment that finds no confirmation in existing
scientific theories.
Thus, such judgment can be called intuitive judgment, since it
does not
directly result from previously recognized judgments.
Indirectly, however,
it results from the knowledge of the theoretician broadened as a
result
of increasing the knowledge base about the subject matter of the
theory
during the preparation stage. From the point of view of the
methodology
of science, such judgment is called a hypothesis or a thesis. In
order for
intuitive judgment to become part of a known or new scientific
theory
it must be subjected to a rigorous scientific procedure:
verification, or
falsification (for hypotheses) or proof (for thesis). A given
intuitive judgment
becomes an element of a scientific theory after conducting
reasoning aimed
at its recognition. Through experience, consisting in increasing
the amount
of knowledge and developing new theories (or its elements,
theoretical
models, etc.), the theoretician acquires skills in this area –

intuition is
being improved.
The theoretician’s activity can also be presented in the context
of
D. Kahneman’s System 1 and System 2 theory (2011). D.
Kahneman
distinguishes between two modes of thinking – System 1 and
System 2.
System 1, the so-called fast thinking system works
automatically, without
any significant effort of the subject of cognition. At the same
time, it makes
no sense to consciously control it. System 2, the so-called slow
system
of thinking is a deliberate system, consciously initiated by the
subject of
cognition. System 2 is responsible for activities that require a
significant
effort of the cognitive entity. The functioning of System 2,
therefore,
involves a subjective sense of focus and a conscious action. In
the context
of D. Kahneman’s theory, it can be stated that System 1 is
responsible
for formulating intuitive judgments, and thus it is responsible
for the key
stage in the development of a new scientific theory, i.e. for
formulating
intuitive judgments – ideas. This process takes place outside the
mechanism
of reasoning, inaccessible to System 1. The role of System 2 is,
therefore,
reasoning aimed at the rational justification of intuitive
judgment.

150 DOI 10.7172/1644-9584.82.7
The following conclusions can be drawn from the presented
process:
– a necessary condition for formulating a thesis or a hypothesis
constituting
an element of a scientific theory is the acquisition of a means of
action
in the form of knowledge, concerning the studied object of
reality;
– intuition, as a skill, is a tool for formulating intuitive
judgments – ideas
in the form of hypotheses or theses;
– intuition is a sine qua non condition for the development of
scientific
theories;
– reasoning is secondary to intuition in the development of
scientific
theories – reasoning is a tool for logical justification of
intuitive judgments
formed with the use of intuition;
– the effect of the theoretician's activity is knowledge and
ability in the
form of intuition;
– intuitive judgments are the effect of the functioning of System
1;

– rational judgments are the effect of the functioning of System
2.
In conclusion, for a theoretician, intuitive cognition precedes
rational
cognition. There is a causal link between the two types of
cognition. Making
intuitive judgment is the condition for making rational
judgments. Therefore,
the researcher's intuition forms the basis of theory, and
reasoning confirms
this theory. The effect of theoretician’s work is given only in
the form of
a set of rational judgments.
5. Intuition in management practices
The aim of the management practitioner is to improve the skill
of making
effective management decisions (Simon, 1987), (Griffin, 2016),
(Cleden,
2017), (Ceschi et al., 2017). A managerial decision is a specific
type of
judgment about the optimal choice of one alternative instead of
other
available alternatives. Therefore, a managerial decision may be
rational
judgment (based logically on other recognized judgments) or
intuitive
judgment (not logically based on other rational judgments).
The process of shaping the ability to make effective decisions
can be
described using the four-stage model of competence. This model
includes
the following phases (Lynch, 2017):

– unconscious incompetence;
– conscious incompetence;
– conscious competence;
– unconscious competence.
The transition from the phase of conscious incompetence to the
conscious competence phase takes place in the learning process.
The
learning process is carried out using two mechanisms – learning
about the
subject of decisions taken and learning through decision-making
practice
(often for many years). The manager improves his/her key skill
on the basis
of theoretical knowledge and knowledge derived from
experience (the effects
Management Sciences
2019 151
of earlier decisions). Improvement of the manager in the scope
of decision-
making skills results in the fact that a wide range of managerial
decisions
previously taken consciously using System 2 (and therefore the
mechanism
of reasoning) becomes decisions made by System 1 (whose
mechanisms
cease to be realized). Therefore, in the case of a typical,
repeated decision,
it is desirable that the manager ought to be guided not by

reason, but by
the skill in the form of intuition. At the same time, it should be
noted that
this applies to problems that the manager would solve
analogically using
the reasoning mechanism. The shift of a wide range of activities
from
System 2 to System 1 provide managers with a number of
benefits, the
most important of which are: reduced effort, lack of necessary
attention and
a greater speed of decision making. A particularly important
advantage of
the use of intuition (System 1) is the speed of decision making –
the need
to make decisions under time pressure is a fundamental problem
faced by
managers (Beach & Lipshitz, 2017), (Luhmann, 2018).
In the case of non-typical decisions or those burdened with a
high level
of uncertainty, reasoning becomes inadequate. Forecasting is an
example
of this type of activity. To a large extent, decisions regarding
the future
are made on the basis of the decision-makers’ intuition (Salas et
al., 2010).
At the same time, it should be noted that intuition and its
effects in the
form of intuitive judgments are built on the basis of experience
of the
decision-maker and previously made rational judgments (based
on both
current …

L201-RA-1
US ARMY SERGEANTS MAJOR ACADEMY
Sergeants Major Course (SMC)
L200: Developing Organizations and Leaders
Lesson Plan for L201
Organizational Power and Influence
L 1 Reading A:
The Application of Power and Influence in Organizational
Leadership
1
1 By Dr. Gene Klann. Reproduced by and for the USASMA
(2010)
L201-RA-2
For the uninformed, military leadership is all about giving
orders and expecting instant obedience.
Followers of this mental model believe if there is any hesitation
in compliance from Soldiers, they will
inevitably be punished or even thrown in the brig.‖ This was
best epitomized in a discussion I had
when assigned to NATO with Dr. Michel Liu, a noted
sociologist and professor at Paris-Dauphine
University. He felt leadership in the military was all about
enforcing compliance, and no need existed for
more advanced influencing skills. It was his opinion that
military leaders merely relied on rank, position,

service rules, and regulations to get things done, and military
leadership was really a myth! We wish it
was only that simple.
Military leaders are responsible for achieving any and all
assigned missions. That is the expected
result or outcome of their leadership. They can do this through
either commitment or compliance-focused
influence. Compliance-focused is directed at follower behavior.
It is generally effective for gaining
short-term and immediate results. It also works well in time-
constrained environments with basic tasks
that require a specific action or behavior, and there is little need
for follower understanding.
Noted leadership researcher Peter Senge
believes ninety percent of the time what
passes for employee commitment is really
compliance.1 According to Senge, there
are various levels of compliance ranging
from genuine compliance to
noncompliance. In genuine compliance the
followers do what is expected and are
considered good employees. During
routine operations, genuine compliance
may be all that is required to successfully
accomplish the mission. In grudging
compliance employees make only
minimum effort and their heart is really not
in it. They only do the least amount of
work because they have no personal
ownership or buy-in. They are really not convinced the leader’s
decision or action is the best one, that it
will be effective, or that it is even worth doing in the first
place.2 They also have no problem letting others
know they are not on board.

Long-term and lasting change requires a different focus.
Leaders must move beyond compliance-
prompted behavioral changes and focus on influencing follower
attitudes, beliefs, and values in order to
gain commitment. Commitment implies the followers want the
organization to succeed and positive
changes to occur. Committed followers make a decision to take
personal ownership of mission tasks,
have internal buy-in to the leader’s decisions and orders, and
proactively dedicate themselves to mission
accomplishment. They feel a shared responsibility for the
successful completion of the task at hand. It
could be said that both their mind and heart are really in it.‖
The critical point is that the commitment is
self-initiated. It is a cognitive, thought-based process. The
leader can create an environment that
promotes and encourages follower commitment but the bottom
line is that the individual must make a
personal, internal, thought-out decision to fully sign on to the
mission.
A historical example of the contrast between follower
commitment and compliance can be taken from
the experience of Major General George Armstrong Custer.
During the American Civil War, Custer had
the total commitment of the highly motivated volunteers he
commanded in the 3rd Michigan Cavalry
Compliance vs. Commitment
Compliance: Conforming to a specific requirement or demand
Commitment: Dedication or allegiance to a cause or
organization

Compliance
&
Commitment
- FM 6-22
Change in
behavior
Change in
thinking
L201-RA-3
Division. He was convinced he could accomplish any mission
with these troops, and had a proven track
record of success during the war. This was quite different from
the troopers he later commanded in the 7th
Cavalry Regiment during the American Indian Wars. These
Soldiers were generally from the lower
elements of society and some were even former criminals.
Many were immigrants who could barely
speak English or even ride a horse. They had joined the Army
simply to have a job. Custer was
constantly frustrated with them and, to gain their compliance,
reverted to extremely harsh disciplinary
measures to include executions. This lack of commitment in his
Soldiers impacted their level of
competence and was one of many factors that contributed to
Custer’s devastating defeat at the Little
Bighorn.

The challenge for the organizational-level leader is gaining this
commitment from subordinate leaders
and followers for the health and future of the organization.
How do they do it? It all begins with power.
POWER
A core tool or means the leader can leverage to gain follower
commitment is the power available to
them. We define power as the capacity to influence others and
implement change. It is not the actual
influencing action. Influencing is the application of power.
Without power, there is little influencing;
and with no influencing, there is no opportunity to gain genuine
compliance or commitment from others.
The practical question must then be
asked, What are the sources of a leader’s
power?‖ According to Dr.’s Gary Yukl
and Cecelia M. Falbe, there are two
independent sources of power: position and
personal.3 The first is the authority that
comes from the position the leader is
filling. This gives them position or
positional power. With this form of power
comes the authority of the position.
Position power promotes follower
compliance. The second source of power
is personal power. This power comes from
the leader’s followers and is based on their
trust, admiration, and respect for the leader.
It is tied to the leader’s expertise and
personality. Personal power encourages and connects with
follower commitment.

Position Power
Position power is derived from a particular office or rank in a
formal organization. According to
taxonomy of social psychologists John R.P. French and Bertram
Raven, it can be divided into further
subcategories such as legitimate, reward, and coercive.4 When
this power is applied through the use of
appropriate influence techniques,* it can be very effective in
changing the behavior of followers. In other
words, it is excellent in gaining compliance.
* ADRP 6-22, Army Leadership, uses the term influence
techniques.‖ The majority of the professional leadership
community uses the term influence tactics‖ coined by
University of Albany researcher and professor Dr. Gary
Yukl. I use both terms interchangeably in this article.
Power
The capacity an individual has to influence
the attitude or behavior of others
POSITION
POWER
PERSONAL
POWER
• Coercive
• Legitimate
• Reward

• Information
• Expert
• Referent
Compliance
&
Commitment
8
L201-RA-4
Legitimate power comes from the leader’s formal or official
authority. Individuals with legitimate
power influence others through orders and requests that are
consistent and appropriate with their position.
In the exercise of legitimate power, the followers respond
because they believe the leader has the right to
make requests or give orders, and they have an obligation to
comply.
Command is a form of legitimate power. According to ADRP
6-22, Army Leadership, “command is the
authority a commander in the military service lawfully exercises
over subordinates by virtue of rank or
assignment.‖5 It grants military leaders both the right and
obligation to make decisions, give orders, and
exercise control of resources such as budgets, equipment,
vehicles and other assigned materials.
Trappings of legitimate power may include office size and

layout; professional assistants, drivers; and
aides; uniform insignia and accouterments; and so on.
Reward power involves the capacity of leaders to use highly
desired resources to influence and
motivate their followers. These include promotions; selection
for special duties, activities, or privileges;
"be st‖ competitions; medals; letters of appreciation or
commendation; and so on. On a lesser but still
significant scale, the reward could be public or private verbal
praise, a thank you note, time off, an
intercession on another’s behalf, or a simple recognition by
handshake or personal acknowledgment.
When soldiers realize their leaders in the chain of command
know who they are, it can be highly
motivational. In reality, the rewards leaders generate for
followers are limited only by their creativity and
originality.
Coercive power is the opposite of reward power. Whereas
reward power offers something positive
and desirable, coercive power presents something negative and
undesirable. As the old quote says, I t is
the difference between gain and pain.‖ Coercive power is the
capacity to influence others through
administering negative sanctions such as punishments, removal
of privileges, fear tactics, public
embarrassment, or being placed in a bad light among one’s
peers. Coercive power has been traditionally
associated with the military and stereotypical toxic military
leaders. Countless movies have been made
depicting military leaders of all ranks and particularly drill
sergeants using coercive power tactics.
American General Joseph Vinegar Joe‖ Stilwell commanded in
the China-Burma-India Theater in

World War II and was known for his demanding nature and
caustic remarks. He excelled in the use of
coercive power tactics. One of his British brigade commanders,
John Masters, recalled Stilwell
specifically detailing a staff officer to visit subordinate
commands to chastise their officers for being
y ellow.‖ 6 Obviously there was some truth to the nickname
Vinegar Joe.
Coercive power has serious limitations and disadvantages. It
may bring temporary compliance but
undermines long-term commitment. It could result in passive-
aggressive behavior, retaliation, and formal
complaints against the chain of command leading to disciplinary
or relief actions.
An additional form of position power described by Yukl is
information power. It includes access to
critical information, control over its dissemination, and the
ability to act on that information. Based on
rank and position, organizational leaders routinely have access
to information that subordinates do not.
Thus a leader who controls the flow of information has the
opportunity to interpret events for
subordinates and influence both perceptions and attitudes.7
Leaders can present information anyway they
like and even distort it to their advantage. They may do this to
cover up mistakes, bad decisions, or
potential failures. Information is also vital in crisis situations
because it is essential to the emotional well
being of those being led. When information is not readily
available, many followers will inevitably
M SU‖ it mean make stuff up.‖ What they make up generally
will be better than reality though the
consequences will be much worse.
Personal Power

L201-RA-5
In additional to positional power, leaders can also leverage
personal power. Personal power is
derived from the followers based on their trust, admiration and
respect for the leader. It is the power
given to the leader by the followers based on the leader’s
personality or expertise. It can be subdivided
into two categories: expert power and referent power. When
this power is applied through the use of
appropriate influencing techniques, it can be very effective in
gaining commitment in others. This is
because it allows the leader to influence not just the followers’
behavior but their thinking as well through
an appeal to personal attitudes, beliefs, and values. It is
important to remember that followers can
withdraw this power just as easily as they give it. Whereas
position power encourages follower
compliance, personal power promotes follower commitment
with the use of proper influence tactics.
Expert power is based on the knowledge and expertise one has
in relation to those being led. It is
being the subject matter expert or SME. The more knowledge,
skills, talents, and proficiencies leaders
have, the more power they can leverage. Those selected for
battalion command successfully served in
KD jobs such as a battalion XO or S3. These jobs should have
provided the knowledge and expertise
essential for their success as a battalion commander. The
challenge at the organizational level is that
there may be many individuals in a battalion possessing more
expert power than the battalion commander.

This could include assigned warrant officers, various
noncommissioned officers, and those whose
assignments have given them special knowledge or experiences.
Part of leveraging expert power, is the
leader’s effective utilization of all available expert resources to
accomplish the mission.
Post World War II research studies indicate that junior enlisted
Soldiers had much more confidence in
their noncommissioned officers than in their commissioned
officers, i.e. platoon leaders. Understandably,
this was because of the experience the NCOs possessed in
comparison to the lieutenants, experience the
Soldiers felt would keep them alive.8 This was expert power in
its highest form.
The second category of personal power is that of referent
power. Leaders can offset a lack of expert
power by leveraging their referent power. Referent power
refers to the strength of the professional
relationship and personal bond leaders develop with their
followers.9 When followers admire leaders and
view them as role models or even friends, they imbue them with
referent power. People will work hard
for such leaders simply because they want to look good in their
eyes and not let them down. To put it
another way, referent power is the power generated by
relationships the brick and mortar of solid
organizations. The stronger the relationship, the higher the
probability things will get done and get done
well. Also, referent power has the highest potential of all the
forms of power to gain a strong
commitment from the followers.
General Dwight D. Eisenhower had exceptional interpersonal
skills. Despite the fact that he did not

deploy overseas in World War I, serve in combat, or command a
unit larger than a battalion, he was
selected in 1942 by President Roosevelt and General Marshall
to be the Commanding General, European
Theatre of Operations. This appointment was due as much to
his relational skills as his professional or
administrative competencies. Eisenhower did not disappoint.
Through his interpersonal and social skills,
he was able to gain the trust and confidence of both the allied
and U.S. military and political leaders.
Though he had fundamental disagreements with Churchill and
other allies, it did not seem to affect their
relationship.
INFLUENCE
Influence is the application of power. Leaders can use their
power to affect and change the behaviors,
values, attitudes, morale, and commitment level of those they
lead. The research of Dr. Gary Yukl
indicated the application of the leader’s power comes
principally through a variety of influence tactics
(influencing techniques).10 The type of influence tactics
applied to a given situation depends on the
L201-RA-6
amount of power the leader has, the target group being
influenced, the degree of resistance expected, and
the rationale behind the various influencing tactics.11
Influence tactics can be placed into three broad
categories: hard, soft, and rational tactics.12
Influence Tactics

Hard tactics are generally associated
with positional power and include
coalition, legitimate requests, and pressure.
They are very effective at gaining follower
compliance. They are generally used
when the leader is expecting significance
resistance, the leader or influencer has the
upper hand, or when the person being
influenced violates the protocols of
appropriate behavior with the leader.
leader asks for the assistance or
support of others to influence the
target. It may include getting the endorsement of someone the
target person likes, respects, or
views as an expert. Coalition tactics are routinely used in
combination with one or more other
influence tactics such as rational persuasion, ingratiation, or
apprising. It can also be described as
g anging up.‖ This tactic can make the target extremely
uncomfortable.
leader makes requests based on their
rank, position, or authority. The leader first establishes his or
her authority as part of the request
process. It is generally used when the request is unusual,
resistance is expected, or the target
person may not know who the leader is or what authority she
has.13 This is a tactic that is best
used sparingly as it loses its impact and effectiveness if
overused. Pu ll ing rank‖ is a type of
legitimizing tactic.

reminders, persistent demands, constant
checking, bothersome micromanagement, and other aggressive
behaviors from the leader. These
tactics are generally used if the commitment of those being led
is low and compliance is an
acceptable alternative. The problem with pressure tactics is that
they have the tendency to
undermine relationships. They may be effective in the short
term but generally have a negative
long-term effect. Pressure tactics are closely associated with
the pre-volunteer military and also
Hollywood’s stereotype of military leaders. Experience has
shown that, overall, pressure tactics
have very low effectiveness.
Soft tactics are associated with personal power and include
ingratiation, personal appeal,
inspirational appeal, participation, relational, and building
consultation. All are effective at gaining
follower commitment or at least placing the follower in a
position where they are more willing than not to
commit to an action or change. Besides the focus of gaining
commitment, they can be used when the
influencer is at somewhat of a disadvantage, when they expect
minor resistance, or when they will
personally benefit if the influencing effort is a success.
influenced feel better about the
leader and the request he or she is about to make. Ingratiation
is done by giving praise, acting
Influence: The Application of Power
POSITION

POWER
PERSONAL
POWER
Compliance
&
Commitment
Influence Techniques
Hard Rational Soft
- Coalition
- Legitimate requests
- Pressure
- Ingratiation
- Personal appeals
- Inspiration
- Participation
- Relationship building
- Consultation
- Rational persuasion
- Exchange

- Apprising
- Collaboration
L201-RA-7
friendly, giving unexpected favors, or saying things to make
those being influenced feel special or
be in a better mood. Sales representatives use ingratiation as
one of their primary influencing
tactics. Another common phrase for ingratiation is s ucking
up!‖ In a World War II period
cartoon by Bill Mauldin, infantryman Willie says to his buddy
Joe, The Captain was acting real
friendly this morning. Guess that means we’re moving back up
to the [front] line again.‖ The
captain’s action was a form of ingratiation. While the word
ingratiation‖ has a negative
connotation, it can be effectively used in moderation, for
example, when meeting new people and
attempting to make a good first impression. If successfully
employed, it will increase the referent
power of the user.
loyalty, or trust. It generally occurs
when the leader is faced with a difficult situation and mutual
trust and confidence are essential to
their success. The leader would appeal to the follower by
highlighting the special skills or talents
he or she has that would insure the task would be successfully
accomplished. Personal appeals
are directly connected to referent power. Many times they are

made when the task is not part of
the person’s normal duties or responsibilities.
emotions and enthusiasm in
others to gain their commitment. It appeals to the target
audience by connecting the request to a
person’s values, needs, hopes, and ideals. Examples would be
the commander’s speech before
the big battle or a coach’s speech to the team before the big
game. To effectively use this
influence tactic, the leader must clearly understand the hopes,
dreams, and values of those being
influenced. Leader’s can use imagery, metaphors, and rousing
animated gestures in the process
of the appeal. However, this must be consistent with how the
leader is generally viewed. If it is
not, it will come across as phony and inauthentic and could
have the reverse effect of what was
intended. During World War II, General Patton would routinely
travel to his army’s subordinate
units and give rousing inspirational appeal speeches. This was
realistically captured on film in
the 1970 academy award-winning movie Patton. In the movie’s
opening scene George C. Scott,
acting as Patton, gave a stirring inspirational speech that was in
fact drawn from the Patton
historical archives.
a mission should be accomplished,
a task carried out, or a difficult change implemented. This is
done to leverage the expertise and
knowledge of the target person as well as gain a higher level of
commitment for the project.
There are situations in which the leader already knows what he

or she is going to do and
consultation is really a subtle form of manipulation. But this is
not true in all cases. There are
times when the expert power of subordinates is needed to insure
the plan is solid. An example of
this was in the movie, Saving Private Ryan. Prior to the film’s
final battle, Captain John Miller
(Tom Hanks) asked Sergeant Mike Horvath (Tom Sizemore)
what he thought they should do. It
was the only time in the movie when he called Sergeant Horvath
by his first name. This is a
classic consultation technique.
part in a planning, brainstorming,
problem solving, consensus building, or decision making
process. Unlike with the consultation
tactic, the follower does not have any unusual expertise on the
topic. The participation generally
increases the follower’s personal sense of value and worth to
the organization. This recognition
is important in building follower commitment and increasing
their ownership and buy-in. Since
the follower has participated in the planning or problem solving
process, this tactic also enhances
the enabling and empowerment process.
L201-RA-8
positive rapport and a relationship of
mutual trust, making followers more willing to support requests.
Examples include showing
personal interest in a follower’s well-being, offering praise, and

understanding a follower’s
perspective. This technique is best used over time. It is
unrealistic to expect it can be applied
hastily when it has not been previously used. With time, this
approach can be a consistently
effective way to gain commitment from followers.
Rational tactics are associated with both personal and
positional power and include rational
persuasion, exchange, apprising, and collaboration. These
tactics are generally used when the two parties
of are equal rank or power, when no resistance is expected, or
when both the organization and the
influencer will benefit. These tactics initially appeal to
compliance but can lead to commitment because
they typically generate short-term wins that can, if consistently
applied, sway the attitudes and beliefs of
the followers or targets.
is the most common and one of the most
effective influencing techniques.
It commonly uses logical arguments, facts, details, specific
evidence, data, and various forms of
proof to convince the target audience. Rational persuasion is
commonly used by lawyers in legal
arguments. It focuses on one’s reason, rationale thought, and
common sense. It is perhaps the
most difficult to counter and can also be effectively used by
subordinates when attempting to
influence their leaders. At the Pacific Strategy Conference in
Hawaii in July of 1944, General
Douglas MacArthur masterfully used rational persuasion to
influence President Franklin
Roosevelt regarding the strategic way ahead in the Pacific War.
With Admiral Chester Nimitz
present, MacArthur skillfully outlined to the President why

liberating the Philippines made more
sense than the navy’s recommended strategy of bypassing those
islands and advancing on
Formosa. Roosevelt decided in favor of MacArthur’s strategic
approach, which was somewhat
surprising since he was a strong advocate of the navy, sea
power, and had previously been
Secretary of the Navy. Such was the strength of General
MacArthur’s rational persuasion.
The leader knows the subordinate
wants or desires something that is highly valued by them. As a
result the leader will give them
what they want if the subordinate will comply with a request
from the leader. This tactic will
only work if what the subordinate is promised is of value to
them, and they believe the leader
doing the promising can and will follow through. Exchange is
quite common in politics. One
elected official will vote for a law if they are promised
something in value by another
representative in return for their vote. Former U.S. Senator Bob
Dole, R-Kansas, a thrice
decorated World War II 10th Mountain Division veteran, was a
master of this tactic during his
twenty-seven years in the Senate.
complying with his or her request will
benefit the target personally or professionally or both. Not
unlike rational persuasion, this often
involves logic and facts. In apprising, the person being
influenced will receive a certain benefit
by doing what the leader is requesting. It is not, however,
something the leader will provide.

That is just the opposite of exchange tactics in which the person
being influenced is being
provided something by the leader. The benefits of apprising
may include increased opportunities
for advancement, greater visibility to influential people, highly
desired skill training, the selection
for special duties, activities, or privileges, and the like.
the resources, equipment, or
assistance that will be needed to successfully complete a
request. This would be resources that
the person being tasked may not have. In collaboration there is
a joint effort by both the leader
L201-RA-9
and the target to accomplish a mission or task. An example in
an operational environment would
be the senior commander offering additional artillery, air, or
armor resources to the subordinate
commander in the support of a very tough offensive action.
Given the forms of power a leader possesses, positional
and/or personal, how does the leader know
what influencing techniques to use? What happens if a leader
with positional power but no personal
power attempts to use a soft influencing technique? Probably
not very much will happen. Imagine a boss
you dislike or do not respect attempts to influence you through
an inspirational speech or a personal
appeal. You would probably find the actions somewhat
offensive and quickly identify the insincerity.

If a leader who has personal power uses a hard influencing
technique, it might not be well received by
the followers. It will seem out of place and the followers will
probably ask, W hat’s wrong with the boss
today? He must have had a fight with his wife!‖ Many leaders
will avoid using hard tactics in fear of
jeopardizing the referent power they already have with their
followers.
Some leaders have various forms of power but do not have the
will to use them. This is generally
because of a lack of moral courage. Some leaders apply the
correct tactic to the correct form of power
but, because it is done so ineffectively, no one is influenced.
Then there are other leaders who do not
understand either power or influence and therefore do not
properly leverage any of these leadership tools
available to them.
Emotional Intelligence
How can the leader insure that the
appropriate form of power and influence
tactics are used in a given situation? It is
through the use of emotional intelligence
ce is the
ability or skill to identify, assess, manage,
and control the emotions of one’s self, of
others, and of groups.14
…
ADP 6-22
ARMY LEADERSHIP

AND THE PROFESSION
JULY 2019
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION:
Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
This publication supersedes ADP 6-22 and ADRP 6-22, dated
1 August 2012 and ADRP 1, dated 14 June 2015.
HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
The Army Profession, Ethic, and Leadership
25 November 2019 ADP 6-22, C1 1-17
DYNAMICS OF LEADERSHIP
1-89. The most effective leaders adapt their approach to the
mission, the organization, and the situation. A
division commander addressing brigade commanders before
conducting large-scale combat operations leads
and communicates differently than a drill sergeant training new
recruits in basic training. Constant change
affects peacetime and combat operations. Personnel change out.
Timelines move. Anticipated resources do
not materialize. Adversaries do what was least expected.
Weather keeps CAS assets grounded. Commanders,
leaders, and staffs plan for possible changes and continually
monitor progress to engage as needed. Leaders
account for the important factors affecting the dynamics of

leadership. Three consistent factors are—
.
THE LEADER
1-90. An Army leader influences others to accomplish missions.
A leader has the opportunity to lead when
assigned responsibility, assuming a role, or being an informal
leader within a team. Leaders motivate people
both inside and outside the chain of command toward action or
to change their thinking when appropriate.
Formally or informally, regardless of position or rank, all Army
members can find themselves in situations
to lead and influence others. Leaders who adapt their actions
based on the dynamics of a situation achieve
the best possible outcomes. Leaders take into account the level
of their experience or skill, and their authority.
1-91. Everyone has an identity or a way they see themselves.
Leaders internalize the roles, responsibilities,
and actions that they understand of a leader to be, know, and do.
Leaders who are unsure of themselves filling
the role of a leader will be limited until they have confidence.
Without a clear leader identity, others will
question the type of leader they are, what they stand for, and the

way they conduct themselves. What a leader
believes about their role as a leader serves as a constant guide
to behave as a leader of good character. Practice
identifying as a leader—doing the right things in the right
way—becomes habitual and helps junior personnel
along the path to becoming seasoned, effective leaders.
1-92. Self-awareness is fundamental to understanding one’s
abilities. Leaders should know their strengths
and weaknesses: what they do or do not know, what they are or
are not skilled at, and what is in their span of
control. Even though they should be self-aware, not all leaders
are. Leaders vary in their proficiency levels
in attributes and competencies and their preparation for each
situation. Leaders require self-awareness if they
are to accurately assess their own experience and competence as
well as earn the trust of those they influence.
Being self-aware means seeing one’s self as viewed by others
and understanding the levels of influence one
is likely to have with followers. For instance, a newly assigned
company commander understands that
participating with Soldiers on a 12-mile ruck-march builds
subordinates’ respect for the leader and builds the
leader’s credibility with them. Awareness allows one to adjust
one's leadership actions in the moment and

know what areas to improve for the future.
1-93. Leaders have different responsibilities and authorities that
can vary with duty positions and missions.
Authority to lead is either formally derived from rank or
position or is informal, such as when influencing
peers or coalition partners. Formal authority allows use of
commitment and compliance through the methods
of influence (see chapter 5). Informal authority primarily relies
on obtaining commitment from others.
Formal Leadership
1-94. Formal leadership authority is granted to individuals by
virtue of assignment to positions of
responsibility, according to their rank and experience. The
Uniform Code of Military Justice supports military
leaders in positions of legitimate authority. Formal leaders
exercise their authority over subordinates through
lawful orders and directives. An Army leader operates with
clear expectations regarding conduct so that
indiscipline does not jeopardize mission success. Leaders,
through formally assigned authorities and clearly
communicated standards, are responsible for ensuring adherence
to standards, policies, and codes. Team
leaders, squad leaders, platoon leaders, staff officers,
commanders, and civilian supervisors are all examples
of leaders in positions with formal designations of authority.

Chapter 1
1-18 ADP 6-22, C1 25 November 2019
1-95. Command is the authority that a commander in the armed
forces lawfully exercises over subordinates
by virtue of rank or assignment (JP 1). Command includes the
authority and responsibility for effectively
using available resources and for planning the employment of,
organizing, directing, coordinating, and
controlling military forces for the accomplishment of assigned
missions. Command also includes
responsibility for health, welfare, morale, and discipline of
assigned personnel.
1-96. In Army organizations, commanders establish standards
and policies for achieving and rewarding
exemplary performance, as well as for punishing misconduct.
Military commanders enforce lawful orders
under the Uniform Code of Military Justice. Consequently,
commanders' personalities profoundly affect
organizations. The Army expects leaders selected for command
to lead beyond mere exercise of formal
authority. They lead by example and serve as role models. Their
personal example and actions carry
tremendous weight.

1-97. Command is personal. In Army regulations and doctrine,
an individual, not an institution or group, is
given the authority to command. The legal and ethical
responsibilities of a commander exceed those of any
other leader of similar rank serving in a staff position or as a
civilian manager. The relationships among
commanders and subordinate officers, noncommissioned
officers, enlisted Soldiers, and DA Civilians is
distinct. Those not in command must understand that the
commander alone is responsible for what their
command does or fails to do. Subordinates have the
responsibility to support the commander’s intent for their
command, unit, or organization.
Informal Leadership
1-98. Informal leadership exists throughout organizations and
plays an important role in mission
accomplishment. Informal leadership is not exercised based on
rank or position in the organization. It stems
from personal initiative, special knowledge, unique experiences,
or technical expertise specific to an
individual or team. Informal leadership occurs when someone
takes the initiative to assume responsibility for
action in a situation, takes charge when no formal leader is
present, or to make formal leaders aware of

something they need to know. Informal leaders contribute to
team success.
1-99. Informal networks arise both inside and outside
organizations. These informal networks include the
noncommissioned officer (NCO) support channel. To build
cohesive teams, leaders interact with both formal
and informal teams, including the traditional chain of command
and technical channels combining
commanders and staff officers. The collaboration of first
sergeants within a battalion is also an example of
an informal network. Informal networks that operate in support
of organizational goals are a force multiplier.
Conversely, informal networks that operate at cross-purposes to
the chain of command are destructive to an
organization and intolerable.
THE LED
1-100. The led are an important factor in leadership. Leaders,
who consider their strengths along with
subordinates’ capabilities and the situational demands of
missions, create the best chance at accomplishing
tasks and missions. Inexperienced subordinates and those with
limited competence require greater oversight
and control. Seasoned, competent subordinates require less
oversight and control.
1-101. Experience, competence, and commitment of those led

vary with the mission and situation. For
example, people with significant combat experience may be
overly capable to perform a mission, but their
commitment may lag if they do not consider the mission worth
risking life or limb. Commitment varies with
trust in the leader directing the mission. Trust between the
leader and the led can vary across situations. A
leader applies greater control over some subordinates than
others. Generally, when subordinates have greater
levels of expertise and commitment, leaders trust and empower
them.
1-102. Every Army leader is a subordinate to someone, so all
leaders are also followers. Each Soldier and
DA Civilian begins service by swearing an oath of service that
subordinates him or her to the Nation’s civilian
leadership (see page 1-3). This obligation remains throughout a
career regardless of position or rank attained.
Effective Army organizations depend on the willingness of their
leaders and their subordinates to serve
faithfully and competently in both leadership and followership
roles.
31 July 2019 ADP 6-22 5-1
PART TWO

Competency-based Leadership for Direct
Through Strategic Levels
Part Two describes the core leader competencies and their
application. Army leaders
lead others; develop themselves, their subordinates, and
organizations; and
accomplish assigned and implied missions. The ten
competencies of Army leadership
apply across leadership levels as core requirements, while
subtle changes occur in
purpose and activity at each successive level.
Chapter 5
Leads
The American soldier…demands professional competence in his
leaders. In battle, he
wants to know that the job is going to be done right, with no
unnecessary casualties. The
noncommissioned officer wearing the chevron is supposed to be
the best soldier in the
platoon and he is supposed to know how to perform all the
duties expected of him. The
American soldier expects his sergeant to be able to teach him
how to do his job. And he
expects even more from his officers.
Omar N. Bradley

General of the Army (1950-1953)
LEADS OTHERS
5-1. Leads consists of five competencies. Leads others includes
influencing members in the leader's
organization. Influence is central to leadership. Extends
influence beyond the chain of command involves
influencing others when the leader does not have designated
authority or when others may not recognize the
leader's authority. Builds trust establishes conditions that lead
to mutual confidence among leaders and
subordinates. Leader actions and words comprise the
competencies of leads by example and communicates.
Actions can speak louder than words and leaders who embody
standards as role models are generally more
effective than those who simply talk about standards. Effective
leaders clearly communicate what needs to
be done and why.
5-2. Army leaders draw upon their character, presence, and
intellect while leading others. Direct leaders
influence others person-to-person, such as a team leader who
instructs, encourages hard work, and recognizes
achievement. Organizational and strategic leaders guide
organizations directly through their subordinate
leaders, using both direct and indirect means of influence. A
company commander directly leads the platoon

leaders, who in turn know what the battalion commander wants
done, because the lieutenants understand the
commander’s intent two levels up. The battalion commander
does not communicate to the platoon leaders
directly, but rather depends upon the company commanders to
lead their organizations according to the
commander’s intent. Intent links higher and lower echelons.
Chapter 5
5-2 ADP 6-22 31 July 2019
5-3. All Army leaders are followers; each reports to someone
higher in the chain of command, ultimately
up to the Secretary of the Army who answers to the President.
Leaders inspire and guide subordinates to
follow; subordinates react to inspiration and follow guidance
while performing their duties. Leaders assess
and establish rapport with followers, and followers act in good
conscience to follow guidance. Whether
serving in the role of leader or subordinate, all are honor bound
to perform their duties to the best of their
abilities.
5-4. Context determines when a Soldier or DA Civilian is a
leader or follower. A first sergeant receives

guidance from the company commander as a follower and then
as a leader translates that guidance to the
platoon sergeants. As a leader, the first sergeant does not
simply parrot the guidance received. The first
sergeant translates the guidance into terms that are appropriate
for the company NCOs in the context of other
information received from the battalion command sergeant
major and issues instructions that best meet the
commander’s intent. The activity of influencing others depends
on the followers’ knowledge, skills, and
commitment level. The principles of mission command in ADP
6-0 inform the level of control leaders employ
in a particular situation.
5-5. Effective leadership depends on the alignment of purpose,
direction, and motivation among leaders
and subordinates. Working with a shared understanding of the
operational picture and higher intent generates
the unity of purpose, unity of effort, and consistency essential
to maintaining a positive leadership climate.
Subordinates who see consistency will sense shared purpose and
be less prone to distraction by confusing or
conflicting guidance from different leaders. Those who align
their decisions and activities with their peers,
for example during garrison activities and training, may have
greater influence than a leader who does not.

This unifying aspect of leadership can—
e
aligned around a common vision.
appropriate for the situation.
and outside the organization.
e across a unit.
5-6. Leading others requires that leaders influence others to
conduct tasks, make decisions, and perform
their duty in ways consistent with Army standards. It is the duty
of leaders to motivate others to accomplish
missions in accordance with the Army Values. Leaders
influence others to perform their duties in service of
a higher purpose, not personal gain or advantage. Army leaders
can draw on a variety of methods to influence
others and can use one or more methods to fit to the specific
context of any situation. Some tasks only require
subordinate compliance for success, such as meeting the
requirement for flu shots. Others require building a
high level of commitment on the behalf of subordinates to
achieve success, such as a platoon seizing a heavily
fortified enemy position. Compliance is the act of conforming
to a requirement or demand. Commitment is

willing dedication or allegiance to a cause or organization.
Active opposition to influence denotes resistance.
USING COMPLIANCE AND COMMITMENT
5-7. Successful leadership depends upon both the compliance
and commitment of those being led. Neither
succeeds on its own in most situations; rather, there is a blend
of compliance and commitment amongst
subordinates in each situation. The best leaders generate a sense
of commitment that causes subordinates to
go beyond achieving the bare minimum. Compliance to legal
and ethical orders, directives, and instructions
is always required. Willing and eager agreement is commitme nt.
5-8. Whereas compliance only affects a follower’s behavior,
commitment reaches deeper—changing
attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. Commitment generally produces
longer lasting and broader effects that result
in subordinates being willing to expend more effort of their own
accord, or even put themselves at personal
risk, to accomplish the tasks at hand. Once a leader builds
commitment among followers, they will likely
demonstrate more initiative, personal involvement, and
creativity. Commitment grows from an individual’s
desire to contribute to the organization. Leaders can strengthen
commitment by reinforcing followers’

identification with the Nation (loyalty), the Army
(professionalism), the unit or organization (esprit de corps),
the leadership in a unit (respect), and to the mission (duty).
Leads
31 July 2019 ADP 6-22 5-3
Methods of Influence
5-9. Influence is the essential activity of leadership and refers
to how people affect the intentions, attitudes,
and actions of another person or group of people. Influence
depends upon the relationship that develops
between leaders and others. Positive rapport and a sense of
mutual trust make subordinates more likely to
respond positively to a leader’s influence. Examples of rapport
building include having genuine interest in a
subordinate’s well-being, offering praise for a job well done,
and taking time to understand a subordinate’s
position on an issue. Leaders indirectly influence others by
demonstrating integrity, empathy, judgment,
expertise, and commitment. Army leaders employ various
methods of direct influence based on audience,
intent, and context of the situation. The nine methods listed
below represent different ways to influence:

xchange.
5-10. Pressure occurs when leaders use explicit demands to
achieve compliance, such as establishing
deadlines for the completion of tasks and communicating
negative consequences for those not met. This
approach is generally appropriate under two conditions. The
first is when emphasis is required to ensure
compliance with previously unmet requirements and
subordinates need to reorder their priorities to meet the
higher-level intent to do so. The second is during combat
operations, when the pressure the leader applies
explicitly relates to the negative consequences likely to occur
should the subordinates fail. Leaders should
use this method infrequently, particularly in garrison, since it

tends to create subordinate resentment,
especially if the pressure becomes severe. When subordinates
perceive that pressures originate from their
leader’s attempt to please superiors for personal recognition,
resentment can quickly undermine an
organization’s morale, cohesion, and quality of performance.
Pressure is a suitable choice when the stakes
are high, time is short, or previous attempts to direct action
have not been successful.
5-11. Legitimating occurs when leaders establish their authority
as the basis for a request when it may not
be obvious. Certain tasks must happen regardless of
circumstances when subordinate leaders receive
legitimate orders from higher headquarters. Reference to one’s
position suggests to subordinates that there is
potential for adverse action if the request is not completed.
5-12. Exchange is an influence method that leaders use when
they offer to provide incentives for gaining a
higher level of compliance with orders or instructions. A four -
day pass as reward for excelling during a
maintenance inspection is an example of exchange. The use of
rewards should be impartial and as objective
as possible.
5-13. Personal appeals occur when the leader asks for a
subordinate’s support based upon their personal or

longstanding professional relationship, generally out of loyalty.
This may be useful in a difficult situation
when mutual trust is the key to success. The leader makes a
special appeal by highlighting special talents the
subordinate or team have, as well as the unique bonds they all
share before taking on a tough mission. An S3
might ask a staff officer to brief a difficult audience at an
important conference that makes it clear that the
subordinate is the one best suited and most trusted to give the
briefing.
5-14. Collaboration occurs when the leader engages with
subordinates or peers to apply influence by
contributing to the outcome. The leader is making commitment
more attractive to followers by stepping in
and resolving problems, offering additional resources, or
sharing in the work. A collaborative approach works
well in many environments. It can increase mutual
understanding and clarify commander’s intent while
giving subordinates the opportunity to share their ideas and
perspective.
5-15. Rational persuasion requires providing a broader context,
logical argument, or explanations showing
how a request is relevant to the goal and why something should
or must be done. This is often the first
approach a leader takes to gain compliance or commitment from
subordinates and is more effective when

Chapter 5
5-4 ADP 6-22 31 July 2019
others recognize the leader as an expert. Leaders draw from
their own experience to give reasons why a task
should be accomplished in a particular manner. Rational
persuasion is often used in combination with other
approaches, particularly collaboration.
5-16. Apprising happens when the leader explains why an order
or request will benefit a subordinate or team,
such as explaining how performing a task a certain way that will
save time. In contrast to the exchange
approach, the benefits of apprising are generally beyond the
direct control of the leader to provide. A
commander may use the apprising method to inform a newly
assigned NCO that serving in a staff position,
before serving as a platoon sergeant, could provide invaluable
experience. The commander points out that
additional knowledge may make the NCO a stronger candidate
for promotion.
5-17. Inspirational appeals occur when the leader creates
enthusiasm for a request by arousing strong
emotions in support of a decision they must make or have
already made. Inspirational appeals are best

employed when the stakes are high, and subordinates or peers
understand what those stakes are. A leader
may stress to a fellow leader that without help, the safety of the
team may be at risk.
5-18. Participation occurs when leaders ask others to join them
in determining how best to address a problem
or meet an objective. Active participation leads to an increased
sense of worth and recognition among
subordinates that contributes to unit cohesion. Participation
increases the commitment of subordinates to
execute whatever is decided and contributes to shared
understanding of the commander’s intent. By involving
subordinate leaders during planning, the senior leader is helping
to ensure subordinates will later be able to
pursue critical intermediate and long-term objectives on their
own initiative.
Application of Influence
5-19. Creating commitment among subordinates requires that
they know their leaders are sincere. Committed
subordinates trust their leaders to be doing what is right for the
Army, the mission, the team, and each
individual Soldier. Leaders who primarily focus on personal
gain or recognition are seen by subordinates as
self-serving, which undermines trust and erodes motivation.
Honorable intentions wrongly perceived by

followers as self-serving will yield mere compliance.
5-20. The nature of the mission determines which influence
method or combination of methods is
appropriate. When a situation is urgent and greater risk is
involved, eliciting follower compliance through
more directive methods may be desirable. Direct-level leaders
are often required to coordinate team activities
in an expedient manner, meaning that they focus on explaining
themselves before or after the activities, and
not during execution. In comparison, organizational leaders
typically use methods that draw out strong
commitment from their subordinate leaders.
5-21. The degree to which a leader uses commitment or
compliance depends on the leader, the led, and the
situation. When influencing others, Army leaders understand—
the Uniform Code of Military
Justice, the Soldier’s Creed, and the Army Civilian Corps
Creed.
-lasting trust.
cuses on quickly meeting task demands.
Resistance
5-22. When leaders experience resistance, the first response is

to understand the nature of the relationship
and reasons for opposition or non-compliance. Resistance may
stem from a lack of trust, lack of
understanding, or concerns about well-being. Leaders may need
to clarify misperceptions or correct false
beliefs. Unfounded rumors can hurt unit cohesiveness and create
friction if not confronted at their source.
Gossip and rumors reduce focus while increasing the amount of
energy leaders must spend on activities other
than the mission at hand.
5-23. Leaders need to ensure all parties focus on a shared
understanding. Overt acknowledgement of
resistance can be the first step in reducing it. Leaders should
confront resistance quickly to determine the
reasons why it exists and how to address the causes
constructively. This may be enough to change negative
mindsets and build or restore mutual trust within the
organization. Leaders can lessen resistance by
acknowledging concerns with their own position or requests.
This demonstrates that the leaders recognize
Leads
31 July 2019 ADP 6-22 5-5
both the positives and negatives of a given request and that they

are approaching the issue even-handedly
and fairly.
5-24. Repeated, consistent requests can signal that the leader is
intent on overcoming resistance. For instance,
if an Army leader wants local police to participate in patrols,
the leader may ask the police to participate a
dozen times on different occasions. Eventually the repeated
requests may wear down resistance. Repetition
could have the opposite effect of entrenching the opposition in
their original negative position, which would
signal the need for a different method. Embedding the desired
outcome into stories can show how the actions
are possible and how all sides can benefit. Regardless of
approach taken, leaders must not risk their integrity
nor wander from their mission for the sole purpose of others
perceiving them as influential.
PROVIDING PURPOSE, DIRECTION, AND MOTIVATION
5-25. Leaders influence others to achieve some purpose. To be
successful at exerting influence, Army leaders
have an end or goal in mind. Sometimes the goal will be
specific, and at other times, goals are more general,
but in both cases, the goal should be valid and meaningful.
Leaders should clearly define the ‘what’ and
‘why’. Subordinates should be able to start the mission or task
with the end in mind by knowing what success

looks like and how they can track their own progress.
Motivation increases when subordinates understand
how their roles relate to larger and more important outcomes.
5-26. Leaders must establish clear understanding of the higher
commander’s intent to ensure the team
understands what must be done and why. Commander’s intent is
a concise expression of the purpose of an
operation and the desired end state. Leaders communicate
purpose with implied or explicit instructions so
others may exercise initiative. This is important for situations
when unanticipated opportunities arise or the
original assigned tasks no longer achieve the desired end state.
5-27. Besides purpose, leaders provide direction. Direction
deals with how to achieve a goal, task, or mission.
Subordinates do not always need to receive guidance on the
details of execution. A skilled leader will know
when to provide detailed guidance or promote subordinate
initiative by focusing primarily on purpose.
5-28. Motivation is linked to the reason and level of enthusiasm
for doing something. Army leaders use the
knowledge of what motivates others to influence those they
lead. Understanding how motivation works
provides insight into why people may take action and how
strongly they are driven to act.
5-29. Setting achievable goals can shape motivation. Leaders

can break larger missions into smaller tasks to
keep individuals engaged without being overwhelmed by the
scale or scope of what needs to be done.
Subordinates require the necessary skills and abilities to
perform the tasks they are assigned, have reason to
be committed to the goal, and receive feedback to gauge
progress. Task assignment and goal setting account
for the capabilities and limitations of those performing the tasks
a leader directs. Finally, framing
performance goals positively produces better persistence and
performance than negative framing.
5-30. Leaders can encourage subordinates to set goals of their
own while setting goals for them in terms of
duty performance during counseling and coaching. When
subordinates accept goals, they are better able to
prioritize, focus their attention, and gauge the amount of effort
necessary to achieve them.
5-31. Positive reinforcement such as tangible incentives (time
off) as well as intangible rewards (praise or
recognition) can enhance motivation. Everyone wants their
efforts to be appreciated by others. Leaders can
use healthy competition to renew intensity, such as recognition
for the most improved fitness test score or
top crew gunnery score. Leaders can use corrective measures
when an immediate need arises to discontinue
dangerous or undesirable behavior. By doing so, …

Assignment 1
MGT425-Spreadsheet Decision Modeling
Deadline: 25/2/2021
Instructions – PLEASE READ THEM CAREFULLY
1- All answered must be typed using Times New Roman (size
12, double-spaced) font. No pictures containing text will be
accepted and will be considered plagiarism).
2- Zero plagiarism
3- Avoid misspellings and grammar.
4- Citing of references is also necessary.
5- Students must mention question number clearly in their
answer.
6- All students are encouraged to use their own word

Course Learning Outcomes-Covered
PLO
Course Learning Outcome (CLO)
Question
1.3
Demonstrate the tools for deciding when and which decision
models to use for specific problems
Question 1
2.5
Ability to find some structured way of dealing with complex
managerial decision problems.
Question 1
2.9
Explain simple decision models and management science ideas
that provide powerful and (often surprising) qualitative insight
about large spectrum of managerial problems
Question 2
Assignment Instructions:
· Log in to Saudi Digital Library (SDL) via University’s
website
· On first page of SDL, choose “English Databases”
· From the list find and click on EBSCO database.
· In the Search Bar of EBSCO find the following article:
Title: “Intuitive and Rational Cognition in the Theory and
Practice of Management Sciences”
Author: Marcin Nowak, Joanna Ziomek
Date: March 03, 2019
Assignment Question: (5-Marks)
Read the above article and answer the following Questions:
1. Explain the objective of this study titled as “Intuitive and
Rational Cognition in the Theory and Practice of Management

Sciences”. (300-400 words) 2 Marks
2. How this article is beneficial and related to problem solving
process that you have studied in your course? (200-300 words)
1.5 Marks
3. What is the role of intuition in the managerial decision
making process?
(200-300 Words) 1.5 Marks
Rubric
Excellent (5)
Very Good (4)
Good (3)
Unacceptable (2)
Marks: (100%)
Marks: (100%)
Marks: (80%)
Marks: (60%)
Marks: (40%)
Content
(70%)
Answer all questions and provide support for arguments.
Answer all questions but no support for arguments.
Answer two questions, but no support for
Arguments.
Answer only one question, but no support for
Arguments.
Writing and Format
(30%)

Perfectly written and formatted
Adequately written and formatted
Satisfactorily written and formatted
Completely written and formatted
Answers:

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