retina disease retinal degenerations retinal detachment etiology clinical features treatments

1. RETINAL DETACHMENT
BY,
AYUSHI PATEL
3RD YEAR B.OPTOM

2. ANATOMY
 Retina, the innermost tunic of the eyeball, is a thin,
delicate and transparent membrane, which is the
most highly-developed tissue of the eye. It appears
purplish-red due to the visual purple of the rods and
underlying vascular choroid.
 Retina extends from the optic disc to the ora serrata
with a surface area of about 266 mm2• Retina is
thickest in the peripapillary region (0.56 mm) and
thinnest at ora serrate (0.1 mm). Grossly, il can be
divided into two distinct regions: posterior pole and
peripheral retina separated by the so called retinal
equator an imaginary line which is considered to lie
in line with the exit of the four vena verticose.

3.  Posterior pole refers to the area of retina posterior to
the retinal equator. It is best examined by slit-lamp
indirect biomicroscopy using +78 D and +90 D lens
and by direct ophthalmoscopy. The posterior pole of
the retina includes two distinct areas: the optic disc
and macula lutea.

5. RETINAL DEGENERATION
Retinal degenerations are acquired disorders of
retina characterized by degenerative changes. These
can be classified as below:
1. Peripheral retinal degenerations,
2. Vitreoretinal degenerations, and
3. Macular degenerations, e.g.
Age-related degeneration and
Myopic macular degeneration

6. Peripheral retinal degenerations
1. Lattice degeneration. it is the most important
degeneration that predisposes to retinal detachment.
Incidence is 6 to I 0% in general population and 15 to
20% in myopic patients being bilateral in 50% of cases.
Characteristic features:
• While arborizing lines arranged in a lattice pattern
along with areas of retinal thinning and abnormal
pigmentation .
• Small round retinal holes are frequently present in it.
• Typical lesion is spindle-shaped, located between
the ora serrata and th e equator with its long axis
being circumferentially oriented.
• Involves more frequently the temporal than the
nasal, and the superior than the inferior part of
The fundus.

7. 2. Snail tract degeneration.
It is a variant precursor of
lattice degeneration in which white lines
are replaced
by snow-flake areas which give the retina
a white
frost-like appearance.
Marked vitreous traction is seldom present
so that U- tears rarely occur, although
round holes are relatively common.
Prophylactic treatment is usually
unnecessary, though review every 1 to 2
years may be prudent as RD occurs in a
minority.

8. 3. Degenerative retinoschisis
The term retinoschisis refers to splitting of the
sensory retina into two layers at the level of the
inner nuclear and outer plexiform layers.
It occurs in two forms-the congenital and
acquired called as degenerative.
Degenerative retinoschisis is also called as senile
retinoschisis, may rarely act as predisposing factor
for primary retinal detachment.
The condition occurs in about 4% of population and
is frequently bilateral.

9. 4. White-with-pressure and white-without
pressure
These are not uncommonly associated with
retinal
detachment.
• 'White-with-pressure' lesions are characterised
by
greyish translucent appearance of retina seen
on
scleral indentation.
• 'White-without-pressure' lesions are located in
the
peripheral retina and may be associated with

10. 5. Focal pigment clumps
These are small, localized areas of irregular
pigmentation, usually seen in the equatorial
region.
These may be associated with posterior
vitreous detachment and or retinal tear.

11. 6. Peripheral chorioretinal atrophy
(paving stone
degeneration)
It is characterised by diffuse areas of retinal
thinning and depigmentation of underlying
choroid.
it occurs in about one-third of adult eyes and
is thought to occur due to choroidal vascular
insufficiency.
The lesions appear as isolated or grouped,
small discrete yellow -white areas with
pigmented borders and prominent underlying
choroidal vessels.

12. 7. Microcystoid retinal
degeneration.
It is a common Degeneration
seen as bubbles or vacuoles in the
peripheral retina of old people that
may be confused with retinal holes.
It may predispose to retinal
detachment in some very old
people.

13. VITREORETINAL DEGENERATIONS
Vitreoretinal degenerations or vitreoretinopathies
include:
• Wagner's syndrome,
• Stickler syndrome,
• Favre-Goldmann syndrome,
• Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy,
• Erosive vitreoretinopathy,
• Dominant neovascular inflammatory
vitreoretinopathy,
• Dominant vitreoretinochoroidopathy.

14. RETINAL DETACHMENT
 Retinal detachment is the separation of neurosensory
retina proper from the pigment epithelium.
 Normally these two layers are loosely attached to
each other with a potential space in between.
 Hence, actually speaking the term retinal detachment
is a misnomer and it should be retinal separation.

15. Classification
Clinico-etiologically retinal detachment can be
classified into three types:
1. Rhegmatogenous or primary retinal
detachment,
2. Tractional retinal detachment, and
3. Exudative retinal detachment

16. RHEGMATOGENOUS OR PRIMARY
RETINAL
DETACHMIENT
 Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment
usually
associated with a retinal break (hole or tear)
through which subretinal fluid {SRF) seeps
and separates the sensory retina from the
pigmentary epithelium.
 This is the commonest type of retinal
detachment.

17. Vitreous
gel
(liquified)
LENS

18. Etiology
It is still not clear exactly.
The predisposing factors and the proposed pathogenesis is as follows:
A.Predisposing factors include:
1. Age. The condition is most common in 40-60 years. However, age is no bar.
2. Sex. More common in males (M:F-3:2).
3. Myopia. About 40% cases of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment are myopic.
4. Aphakia: and pseudophakia. The condition is more common in aphakes and pseudophake than phakes.
5. Retinal degenerations predisposed to retinal detachment are as follows:
• Lattice degeneration,
• Snail track degeneration,
• White-with-pressure anti white-without-or
occult pressure,
• Acquired or degenerative retinoschisis, and
• Focal pigment clumps.
6. Trauma. It may also act as a predisposing factor.
7. Senile posterior vitreous detachment (PVD}. It is associated with retinal detachment in many cases.

19. B. Pathogenesis
The retinal breaks responsible for RRD are caused by the interplay between the dynamic
vitreoretinal traction and predisposing degeneration in the peripheral retina. Dynamic
vitreoretinal traction is induced by rapid eye movements especially in the presence of
PVD, vitreous syneresis, aphakia and myopia.
Once the retinal break is formed, the liquified vitreous may seep through it separating the
sensory retina from the pigment epithelium.
As the subretinal fluid (SRF) accumulates, it tends to gravitate downwards.
The final shape and position of RD is determined by location of retinal break (Lincoff's
rule) and the anatomical limits of optic disc and ora serrata.
The degenerated fluid vitreous seeps through the retinal break and collects as subretinal
fluid (SRF) between the sensory retina and pigmentary epithelium.

21.  Clinical features
Prodromal symptoms include:
• Dark spots (floaters) in front of the eye (due to rapid vitreous degeneration), and
• Photopsia, i.e. sensation of flashes of light (due to irritation of retina by vitreous movements).
Symptoms of detached retina are as follows:
l. Localised relative loss in the field of vision ( of detached retina) is noticed by the patient in
early stage which progresses to a total loss when peripheral detachment proceeds gradually
towardsthe macular area.
2. Sudden appearance of a dark cloud or veil in front of the eye is complained by the patients
when the detachment extends posterior to equator.
3. Sudden painless loss of vision occurs when the detachment is large and central.

22.  Signs
1. External examination, eye is usually normal.
2. intraocular pressure is usually slightly lower or may be normal.
3. Marcus Gunn pupil (relative afferent pupillary defect) is present in eyes with
extensive RD.
4 . Plane mirror examination or Distant Direct
ophthalmoscopy reveals an altered red reflex in the
pupillary area (i.e. greyish reflex in the quadrant of
detached retina).

23. 5. Ophthalmoscopy should be carried out both direct and indirect techniques. Retinal detachment, is
best examined by indirect ophthalmoscopy using scleral indentation ( to enhance visualization of
the peripheral retina anterior to equator).
• Freshly-detached retina gives grey reflex instead of normal pink reflex and is raised anteriorly
(convex configuration). It is thrown into folds which oscillate with the movements of the eye. These
may be small or may assume the shape of balloons in large bullous retinal detachment. In total
detachment retina becomes funnel-shaped, being attached only at the disc and ora serrata.
Retinal vessels appear as dark tortuous cords oscillating with the movement of detached
retina.
• Retinal breaks associated with rhegmatogenous detachment are located with difficulty. These look
reddish in colour and vary in shape. These may be round, horse-shoe shaped, slit-like or in the
form of a large anterior dialysis . Retinal breaks are most frequently found in the periphery
(commonest in the upper temporal quadrant). Associated retinal degenerations, pigmentation and
haemorrhages may be discovered.
• Vitreous pigments may be seen in the anterior vitreous (tobacco dusting or Shaffer sign).
With posterior vitreous detachment. Which is seen on the slit lamp.
• Old retinal detachment is characterized by retinal thinning (due to atrophy), formation of subretinal

24. Watermarks present in
CHRONIC RD
Pigmentary line
The most common side of RD is
suprotemporal quadrant ( 40%)

26. 6. Visual field charting reveals scotomas corresponding to
the area of detached retina, which are relative to begin
with but become absolute in longstanding cases.
7. Electroretinography (ERG) is subnormal or absent.
8. Ultrasonography confirms the diagnosis. It is of
particular value in patients with hazy media especially in
the presence of dense cataracts and vitreous
haemorrhage.
 Complications
Complications usually occur in long-standing cases and include proliferative
vitreoretinopathy (PVR), complicated cataract, uveitis and phthisis bulbi.

27.  RPE gives nutrition ( o2 and glucose ) to the rods and cones
which is present in the NSL layer.
 Without nutrition rods and cones die in 48 to 72hrs and vision
will be lost permanently.
LENS

28.  Treatment
Basic principles and steps of RD surgery are sealing of retinal breaks, reducing the
vitreous traction on the retina, and flattening of retina by draining of subretinal fluid
and external or internal tamponade.
1.Sealing of retinal breaks.
 All the retinal breaks should be detected,
accurately localised and sealed by
producing aseptic chorioretinitis, with
cryocoagulation, or photocoagulation or
diathermy. Cryocoagulation is utillised, with
scleral buckling and pneumoretinopexy
while endo-laser photocoagulation is used
during V-R surgery.

29. 2. Drainage of SRF
 It allows immediate
apposition between sensory
retina and RPE. SRF
drainage is done very
carefully by inserting a fine
needle through the sclera
and choroid into the
subretinal space and
allowing SRF to drain away.
SRF drainage may not be
required in some cases.

30. 3. Maintenance of chorioretinal apposition is
required for at least a couple of weeks. This can
be accomplished by either of the following
procedures depending upon the clinical condition
of the eye:
Scleral buckling, i.e. inward indentation of
sclera to provide external tamponade is still
widely used to achieve the above mentioned goal
successfully in simple cases of primary RD.
Scleral buckling is achieved by inserting a n
explant (silicone sponge or solid silicone band)
with the help of mattress type sutures applied in
the sclera.
Radially-oriented explant is most effective in
sealing an isolated hole, and circumferential
explant
(encirclagie) is indicated in breaks involving three

31. buckle

32. ii. Pneumatic retinopexy is a simple out-patient
procedure which can be used to fix a fresh superior
RD with one or two small holes extending
over less
than two clock hour area in the upper two-
thirds
of peripheral retina. ln this technique after
sealing
the breaks with cryopexy, an expanding gas
bubble
(SF6 or C3 F8 ) is injected in the vitreous.
Then proper
positioning of the patient is done so that the
break
is uppermost and the gas bubble remains in
contact with the tear for 5-7 days.

34. ill. Pars plana, vitrectomy, endolaser photocoagulation
and internal tamponade This procedure is indicated in:
• All complicated primary RDs, and
• All tractional RDs.
• Presently, even in uncomplicated primary RDs
(where scleral buckling is successful), the primary vitrectomy is being
used with increasing frequency by the experts in a bid to provide better
results.
Main steps of this procedure are:
• Pars plana, 3-portvitrectomy is done to remove all membranes and
vitreous and to clean the edges of retinal breaks.
• Internal drainage of SRF through existing retinal breaks using a fine
needle or through a posterior retinotomy is done.
• Flattening of the retina is done by injecting silicone oil or
perfluorocarbon liquid.
• Endolaser is then applied around the area of posterior retinotomy,
retinal tears, and holes to
create chorioretinal adhesions.
• To tamponade the retina internally either silicone oil is left inside or is
exchanged with some long acting gas (gas-silicone oil exchange).
Gases commonly used to tamponade the retina are sulphur

35. Prognosis
 Anatomical results of surgery are very good, i.e. attachments of
retina is achieved in most cases.
 However, visual results depend on the pre-operative status of
the macula.
 if the macula has been detached, recovery of central vision is
usually incomplete.
 Thus, surgery should be performed urgently if the macula is still
not detached.
 Once the macula is detached, delay in surgery for up to 1 week
does not adversely influence visual outcome.

36. EXUDATIVE OR SOLID RETINAL DETACHMENT
 Exudative (serous) retinal detachment occurs due to the retina being
pushed away by a neoplasm or accumulation of fluid beneath the
retina following inflammatory or vascular lesions.
 Etiology
I. Systemic diseases.
These include:
toxaemia of pregnancy,
renal hypertension,
blood dyscrasias and
polyarteritis nodosa.

37. 2. Ocular diseases :-
i. Congenital abnormalities such as nanophthalmos, optic pit, choroidal coloboma and familial
exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR)
ii. inflammations such as Harada's disease, sympathetic ophthalmia, posterior scleritis, and orbital
cellulitis.
iii. Vascular diseases such as central serous retinopathy and exudative retinopathy of Coats
iv. Neoplasms, e.g. malignant melanoma of choroid retinoblastoma (exophytic type),
haemangioma, and metastatic tumours of choroid;
v. Sudden hypotony due to perforation of globe and intraocular operations.
vi. Uveal effusion syndrome is characterised by bilateral detachment of the peripheral choroid,
ciliary body and retina.
vii. Choroidal neovascularization may also cause exudative retinal detachment.

38. Melanoma of choroid

39. Perilimbal vitiligo

41. Clinical features
Exudative retinal detachment can be differentiated from a simple
primary detachment by:
• Absence of photopsia, holes/ tears, folds and
undulations.
• The exudative retinal detachment is smooth and convex . At the
summit of a tumour it is usually rounded and fixed and may show
pigmentary disturbances.
• Pattern of retinal vessels may be disturbed occasionally, due to
presence of neovascularization on the tumour summit.
• Shifting fluid characterised by changing position of the detached area
with gravity is the hallmark of exudative retinal detachment.
• On transillumination test a simple detachment appears transparent
while solid detachment is opaque.

42. Investigations
1. Ocular and systemic examination should be
carried out thoroughly.
2. B-scan ultrasonography may help delineate the
underlying cause.
3. PFA may show source of fluid.
4. CT scan and/ or MRI is useful, especially in cases
of intraocular tumours.
Treatment
• Enucleation is usually required in the presence of
intraocular tumours.

43. TRACTIONAL RETINAL DETACHMENT
Tractional retinal detachment (TRD) occurs due to retina being
mechanically pulled away from its bed by the contraction of fibrous
tissue in the vitreous (vitreoretinal tractional bands).

44. Etiology
TRD is associated with the following conditions:
• Proliferative diabetic retinopathy (most common)
• Post-traumatic retraction of scar tissue especially
following penetrating injury,
• Post-haemorrhagic retinitis proliferans,
• Retinopathy of prematurity,
• Plastic cyclitis ,
• Sickle cell retinopathy,
• Proliferative retinopathy in Eales' disease,
• Vitreomacular traction syndrome,
• Incontinentia pigmenti
• Retinal dysplasia, and
• Toxocariasis.

45. 1. Sickle cell retinopathy is a major ocular complication of
the sickle cell disease (SCD) which causes permanent loss
of vision. Retinopathy can occur in sickling
hemoglobinopathies like sickle cell disease, sickle cell C
disease, and sickle cell thalassaemia disease.
Salmon patch hemorrhage
Optical coherence tomography showing vitreomacular
traction syndrome (horizontal and vertical scans) with
posterior hyaloid adherent to the fovea resulting in cystoid
foveal edema.
2. Vitreomacular traction (VMT) syndrome is a potentially visually significant disorder of the
vitreoretinal interface characterized by an incomplete posterior vitreous detachment with the
persistently adherent vitreous exerting tractional pull on the macula and resulting in morphologic
alterations and consequent decline of visual function.

46. Clinical features
Photopsia and floaters are not complained. Tractional
retinal detachment is characterised by:
• Presence of vitreoretinal bands with lesions of the causative disease.
• Retinal breaks are usually absent.
• Configuration of the detached area is concave and more localized and usually does not
extend up to
ora serrata.
• Highest elevation of the retina occurs at sites of vitreoretinal traction.
• Retinal mobility is severely reduced and shifting fluid is absent
• Focal traction from cellular membranes can sometimes produce a retinal tear and lead to a
combined traction -rhegmatogenous retinal detachment.

47. Treatment
• Surgery is difficult and requires pars plana vitrectomy to cut the
vitreoretinal tractional bands and internal tamponade with either a
long-acting gas or silicon oil.
• Prognosis in such cases is usually not so good.