2. CLAUSES
A clause is a sentence or sentence part that has a minimum of a subject and a verb.
I play.
I play soccer.
All sentences contain one or more clauses.
She took English last month.
Since Carlos took cooking classes, Maria has been very happy.
THERE ARE INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES
An independent clause may stand alone or gives a full meaning by itself.
Carla has been taking geography class in college.
A dependent clause may not stand alone and it represents an incomplete idea.
Before I went to bed.
The idea has not been fully expressed because we do not know the rest of the statement.
IT IS POSSIBLE FOR A SENTENCE NOT TO HAVE A DEPENDENT CLAUSE,
BUT EVERY SENTENCE MUST HAVE AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE.
An independent clause is
one that can stand on its
own two
feet--independently. You
can join independent
clauses if you want to.
This is called
coordination.
A dependent clause is one
that cannot stand on its
own two feet--it needs an
independent clause to
lean on. You must join a
dependent clause to an
independent one. This is
called subordination.
3. PHRASES
A phrase is a fragment of a sentence, it may contain subject, verb, or neither, but never both
NOUN PHRASES
It may contain one or more nouns, adjectives that modify the nouns in the phrase,
and/or any articles such as a, an, the, etc.
My brother’s six year old niece
The English teacher
A boring and expensive trip
VERB PHRASES
It consists of one or more verbs or auxiliaries, (only the verbs).
will have been searching for
have not broken up
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
It must always begin with a preposition followed by a noun phrase.
with a lot of patience
in the disturbing mass
If a verb follows a preposition, it must be in its gerund/noun form.
before/after driving all night
4. TYPES OF SENTENCES
SIMPLE SENTENCES
It consists of one independent clause.
I was visiting my relatives during the break.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
It consists of two or more independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction such as: and, but, or, etc.
I was watching TV, and my sister took a break.
(independent clause + independent clause)
COMPLEX SENTENCES
It consists of at least one independent clause with at least one dependent clause. Relative clauses and if clauses
are common complex sentences.
I felt relieved as I approached the end of the road.
(independent clause + dependent clause)
If I had taken my class seriously, I would have gotten better grades
(dependent clause + independent clause)
Jim Carrey, who is a fantastic comedian, has stopped making movies.
(independent clause + dependent clause)
5. Coordinating Independent Clauses
Method 1
Semicolon
Independent
clause
;
Independent
clause
Semicolon with
conjunctive adverb
and comma
Independent
clause
;moreover,
;however,
;consequently,
;indeed,
;nevertheless,
;therefore,
Independent
clause
Method 2
Comma and
coordinating
conjunction
Independent
clause
, for
, and
, nor
, but
, or
, yet
, so
Independent
clause
Subordinating Dependent Clauses
Method 1
Independent clause
first
Independent
clause
(No
punctuation)
Dependent
Clause
Method 2
Dependent clause first
Dependent
clause
, (comma)
Independent
Clause
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
after
although
as (as if)
because
before
even though
if
in order that
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
unless
until
when
whenever
whereas
whether
while
TYPES OF SENTENCES
6. SUBJECT
The SUBJECT of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being something.
You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb.
Ask the question, "Who or what 'verbs' or 'verbed'?" and the answer to that question is the subject.
● "The computers in the Learning Center must be replaced,"
the verb is "must be replaced."
● What must be replaced? The computers in the Learning Center.
So the noun is "computers."
Sometimes the subject is a PSEUDO SUBJECT since no particular person or thing is actually doing the action.
● It is snowing in Seattle.
● There are many apples on the desk.
In English, the subject of a command, order, or suggestion — you, the person being directed — is usually left out of the sentence
and is said to be the UNDERSTOOD SUBJECT::
● [You] Step lively there or I'll leave you behind!
● Before assembling the swingset, [you] read these instructions carefully.
7. SUBJECT
A simple subject is the subject of a sentence stripped of modifiers.
● The really important issue of the conference, stripped of all other considerations, is the morality of the nation.
Sometimes, though, a simple subject can be more than one word, even an entire clause.
● What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill whole volumes,
the simple subject is not "computer repair," nor is it "what he had forgotten," nor is it "he."
Ask what it is that "could fill whole volumes."
Your answer should be that the entire underlined clause is the simple subject.
For purposes of sentence analysis, the do-er or the initiator of action in a sentence is referred to as the agent of the sentence. In an active
sentence, the subject is the agent:
● The Johnsons added a double garage to their house.
● The jury returned a verdict of manslaughter.
In a passive sentence, the agent is not the subject. In fact, sometimes a passive sentence will not contain an agent.
● The dean's report was reviewed by the faculty senate.
● Three cities in the country's interior were bombed.
8. PREDICATE
There are two types of predicates, SIMPLE predicates and COMPOUND predicates, simple predicates has one verb to a subject
while a compound predicate contains two or more verbs to a single noun, they are considered SIMPLE SENTENCES.
SIMPLE PREDICATES
Carlos bought a present for his mother. He gave it to her on her birthday.
Maryll went to the park with her son. She met some friends there.
COMPOUND PREDICATES
Carlos bought a present for his mother and gave it to her on her birthday.
Carlos bought and gave a present for his mother on her birthday.
Maryll went to the park with her son and met some friends there.
Maryll went with her son and met some friends in the park.
9. PREDICATE
● Every sentence has two parts: subject and predicate.
● The predicate is used to tell the reader what the subject does. It contains a verb and shows action.
● Predicates can be one verb or verb phrase (simple predicate), two or more verbs joined with a conjunction
(compound predicate) or even all the words in the sentence that give more information about the subject
(complete predicate).
● To find the predicate, simply look for what the subject is doing.
● The predicate of a sentence is the part that modifies the subject in some way. Because the subject is the
person, place, or thing that a sentence is about, the predicate must contain a verb explaining what the subject
does and can also include a modifier.
● It is the part of the sentence that follows the subject.
● It consists of the verb phrase together with its complements: objects and modifiers.
● The modifiers answer the questions when for time, where for place and how for manner.
10. Simple Predicates
A simple predicate is the word that shows the action in a sentence. It is used to tell you what the subject of the sentence does.
Look at some of the shorter sentences in the English language:
She danced.
The subject of the sentence is "she," the person being spoken about, but what is being expressed about this person? She
performed an action; she danced.
The word that modifies the subject "she" is the past-tense verb "danced."
It talked!
It might be a baby saying a word for the first time, a parrot squawking "hello," or even an inanimate object somehow bestowed
with the power of speech.
What you know about "it" is that, according to the speaker, it spoke. "Talked" modifies the subject "it."
These sentences are very simple examples of what predicates are, since the predicate is expressed entirely by one verb. A simple
predicate may also be a short verb phrase.
I sing.
He was cooking dinner.
We saw the cat outside.
I walked the dog.
PREDICATE
11. Compound Predicates
In addition to simple predicates, there are also compound predicates. A compound predicate gives two or more details about
the same subject and has two or more verbs joined by a conjunction. For example: "She visited her cousins and met all their
friends." In this example, "she" is the subject and "visited" and "met" are the predicates joined by the conjunction "and".
Some more examples of compound predicates are as follows. The compound predicate is in italics in each example.
● He did homework and played video games.
● She likes dolls but hates trains.
● The mail was late but arrived later that evening.
● He lives in Italy and speaks English and Italian.
● We completed the project and won a prize.
● She slept in and was late for work.
● My sister fell and hurt her shoulder.
● Mark broke his computer so borrowed one from his friend.
● The cat chased the mouse and trapped it in the kitchen.
● We shopped and ate lunch at the mall.
PREDICATE
12. Complete Predicates
A complete predicate is the verb that shows the action and also the modifying phrase that completes the thought, basically
everything in the sentence that isn't the subject.
Some examples of complete predicates are as follows. The complete predicate is underlined.
● She is dancing on stage for the first time.
● My family is arriving early tomorrow.
● She was upset for a long time over the break-up.
● I have been studying for hours.
● We are going to the movies later.
● My parents just finished repainting their house.
● You were visiting us this time last year.
● He has left his hometown for the big city.
● The children believe in Santa Claus.
● Our new puppy has been crying all night.
PREDICATE
13. Understanding Other Examples of Predicates
"I am" is often described as the shortest sentence in the English language, but this is not exactly true. While it can be a complete
thought and does contain a subject and a verb, it doesn't explain what "I am." An additional piece of the phrase is usually
necessary to complement the verb. When you answer "I am," you are usually leaving out an implied word which completes the
sentence.
Whatever you add to "I am" technically forms the predicate of the sentence. For example: "I am playing guitar." You must add
"playing guitar" to complete what you are doing in the sentence. Another example: "I am tired." The word "tired" is used to
describe what you are.
Now that you know "I am" is not technically a complete sentence, you'll probably be quick to notice other examples that seem
like complete sentences but lack a predicate, such as "I can" and "I will." What might confuse you is the sentence that seems to
lack a subject.
PREDICATE
14. Understanding Other Examples of Predicates
As surprising as it may sound, the shortest complete sentence in the English language is the imperative, "Go!" How can this be?
After all, "go" is a verb seemingly without a subject or a predicate.
There are two things you'll need to understand before this example will make sense.
● If you tell a person to do something, they are the assumed subject of the sentence. What the imperative (meaning, "do
this!") form of the "to go" verb is addressing is the person to whom you are speaking. What you really mean when you
shout "go!" is, "(You) go!"
● Unlike the "to be" verb used above in the "I am" example, "go" is an action verb, not just a state of being. "Go" is,
therefore, a complete predicate in and of itself-it needs no further explanation or qualification to make sense. (You) can
go anywhere, as long as (you) heeds the imperative.
PREDICATE
15. END MARKS
A sentence is a set of words that makes complete sense alone, and every sentence must end with an end mark.
1. The period (.) should be used after statements, mildly imperative sentences, indirect questions, and after most
abbreviations.
People must obey the laws.
I need to know when your birthday is.
Remember to bring your markers next time.
In five years, I will have worked as an E.M.T.
● Note that when an abbreviation ends a sentence, only one period is used.
2. A question mark (?) is used after direct questions.
How much is this vintage car?
Did you get everything ready for the trip?
3. An exclamation point (!) is used to express surprise, incredulity, or strong emotion.
Oh, my god! Be careful! I can’t believe my eyes!
16. DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT
Direct object
A direct object answers the question "what?" or "who?"
Examples:
● David repaired his car → his car is the direct object of the verb repaired. ( What did David repair?)
● He invited Mary to the party → Mary is the direct object of the verb invited. (Who did he invite?)
Indirect Object
An indirect object answers the question "to whom?", "for whom?", “for what?”
An indirect object is the recipient of the direct object, or an otherwise affected participant in the event. There must be a direct object
for an indirect object to be placed in a sentence. In other words an indirect object cannot exist without a direct object.
Examples:
● They sent him a postcard - him is the indirect object of the verb sent. (To whom did they send a postcard?)
● He bought his son a bike - his son is the indirect object of the verb bought. (For whom did he buy a bike?)
17. DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT
The direct object is the receiver of the action mentioned in the sentence.
John hit the ball. (Direct object: the ball)
Be careful to distinguish between a direct object and an object complement.
They named the boy Christopher.
In this sentence ‘boy’ is the direct object and ‘Christopher’ is the object complement.
The object complement is a word that describes the object.
They elected him their mayor.
Object – him; object complement – mayor
18. DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT
The indirect object identifies the person/thing for whom/what the action of the verb is performed.
The indirect object is usually a person or thing.
Study the examples given below.
My mother bought me a necklace. (Indirect object – me; direct object – necklace)
John told Peter a story. (Indirect object – Peter; direct object – story)
Note that the object pronouns me, him, us, them etc., are not always indirect objects. Sometimes, they also
serve as direct objects.
Help me! (Here the object pronoun ‘me’ is the direct object.)
Kill him! (Here again the object pronoun ‘him’ is the direct object.)
19. DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT
In English, nouns and the articles and adjectives that accompany them do not change form when they
are used as objects, subjects or indirect objects.
He hit the ball. (Object – ball)
The ball is in the goal. (Subject – ball)
As you can see the same word is used as the subject and the object.
However, pronouns change their form. Pronouns have different forms for different functions.
He loves his mother. (Subject – he)
His mother loves him. (Object – him)
