1. The beauty of an ecosystem lies in its diversity and this diversity is in turn maintained by the interactions between various organisms at different trophic levels. Ecological interactions depict the network of influences that the activities of different species have on one another in an ecosystem. 2. Food webs offer an important tool for investigating the ecological interactions that define energy flow and prey-predator relationships. 3. The ecological interactions form the backbone of an ecosystem. It helps in maintaining the dynamic equilibrium of an ecosystem. All organisms are linked to at least one other species in a variety of critical ways, for example, as predators or prey, or as pollinators or seed dispersers with the result that each species is embedded in a complex network of interactions. Consequently, the extinction of one species can lead to a cascade of secondary extinctions in ecological networks. Moreover, interactions between species can lead to ‘community closure’ after the loss of a species, with the result that a locally extinct species cannot re-establish itself if it is reintroduced. Many ecological interactions involve flagship species and keystone species as in the case of Macaca silenus & Cullenia exarillata. Then some interactions like mycorrhiza help in nitrogen fixation. Strategies like predation reduce the loss of vegetation through grazing. 4. Interaction can be either intraspecific or interspecific. Interactions between individuals of the same species and those between individuals of different species are called intra- & interspecific interactions respectively. The lichen serves as an example of interspecific interaction and dogs fighting for a common prey for intraspecific interaction. 5. Often with the term ecological or species interaction we do come across the term symbiosis which means a mutualistically beneficial coexistence of two different groups of organisms. 6. Different researchers are of different views regarding the classification of ecological interactions. The ecological interactions can be broadly classified into 3 types- positive interactions, wherein either one or both of the species interacting is benefited, negative interactions where either one or both species are harmed and the last one, neutral interactions where neither species is affected but live together. Neutral interactions are commonly seen in bacterial cultures. The positive interactions include facilitation. Negative interactions include predation, herbivory & parasitism & cannibalism.

1. Ecological Interactions
at various Trophic Levels
Prepared by,
Anakha Mariya Jacob
21PBOT2476
1st year M.Sc Botany

2. Food web
& Ecological
Interactions
(https://pulpbits.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/savannah-food-web.jpg)

3. Significance of
Ecological Interactions
• Pollination
• Seed dispersal
• Biocontrol of pests
• Maintenance of ecosystem stability
• Extinction
• Conservation of flagship and keystone
species
• Nitrogen fixation
• Minimize livestock loss
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.186d69cd498d246f253f166e8fadb534?rik=g5oHJ3KRDbfkew&riu=http%3a%2f%2ftreesforlife.org.uk%2fdocs%2f079_403__bm_redsquirrel_041_1432827675_standard.jpg&ehk=QKd8jPz%2bHw92dLYD5b1TR%2fTwtTB8SIv1A32PQfDbhso%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRa
w&r=0), (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4a65453654b6d0427f7f83fe766b4114?rik=dMUt2Y5XUV5LPw&riu=http%3a%2f%2f2.bp.blogspot.com%2f_6CGtXcavSuo%2fTHmS8JSmm3I%2fAAAAAAAAATs%2f5T-
PGTjznz0%2fs1600%2fmycorrhiza%2bimage.jpg&ehk=oo%2bLjIpWFd0q%2bX2DpsLfE4TJSQBgW7VPosbSfK%2b0gys%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1),(https://image8.photobiz.com/8671/36_20200701103522_4535266_large.jpg), https://ml2eimdcbmzd.i.optimole.com/VUlt
wHI.BPGM~5336f/w:785/h:554/q:auto/https://pestlockdown.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/the-pros-and-cons-of-biocontrol-
e1590734359318.jpg),, (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.0c488fb5f197cdb4147fbe3d02d75a20?rik=hTeBxZe1Rt1GjA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fpollinatorpartners.ksdot.org%2fimages%2fHummingbird2.png&ehk=g8%2bgnxoWdQ%2fkhdRhqU8MvRo8qKprON7oSrfSO%2fEFNgU%3d&risl=&pid=ImgR
aw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1)

4. Interspecific &
Intraspecific Interactions
(https://tostpost.com/images/2018-Mar/18/94f210cc09b07b46ec73f57f5ad54423/1.jpg,https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Intraspecific-
competition.jpg, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184298/original/file-20170901-21670-11fijf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip)

5. Symbiosis

6. Classification of Ecological Interactions
Ecological
Interactions
Positive
Interactions
Facilitatation
Neutral
Interactions
Negative
Interactions
Competition Predation Herbivory Parasitism
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.5cb8
1d7ee02610bbd1f925433d528cb9
?rik=pcBtSDHzw5mOag&riu=http
%3a%2f%2fzoo-
web02.zoo.ox.ac.uk%2fgroup%2f
west%2fpics%2ffig.jpg&ehk=6VG0
kUvmHDU7cGslyuxrXXSb4K7G58u
h17ivn1XPG6w%3d&risl=&pid=Im
gRaw&r=0, https://image.slidesha
recdn.com/competition-
130804220946-
phpapp02/95/ecology-
competition-lesson-powerpoint-
competitive-exclusion-55-
638.jpg?cb=1398589594) , https:/
/th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.deUWT4t
30llAlbWxupaoHAHaEz?pid=ImgD
et&rs=1, https://www.iamexpat.d
e/sites/default/files/styles/article
--full/public/mosquito-outbreak-
expected-germany-after-ideal-
spring.jpg?itok=Xv6OnIeA)

7. Facilitation
• Beneficial to at least one species.
• More common under
Environmental stress.
Facilitation
Mutualism
Dispersive
mutualism
Defensive
mutualism
Resource-based
mutualism
Commensalism
Inquilinism
Phoresy
Metabiosis
(https://aquariumbreeder.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Clibanarius-tricolor-Blue-Leg-Hermit-Crab-logo-by-Breo-
1024x683.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.7b928e7039fb73dc65a59264148d8aa1?rik=B7Uww1Abx5vYIA&riu=http%3a%2f%2f1.bp.blogspot.com
%2f-
i6Z8qyRFp8U%2fUfmCdpHEmII%2fAAAAAAAADTc%2fZ47cc1E9irQ%2fs1600%2fHummingbirdAlbinoBuddleia2%5bcrop%5d.jpg&ehk=FTruOe23CE
q6vFoowZJ7lIqIyFQU5mxe7Sm6ycZQMno%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1, https://www.differencebetween.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/06/Difference-Between-Epiphytes-and-Parasites-1.jpg, https://live.staticflickr.com/896/29084659018_eb9720f5f5.jpg)

8. Facultative & Obligate Mutualism
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.a589e1b38c324e5d5a539664bae9fbd1?rik=Tq1N8ZbZ5zo8Yg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fcdn.arstechnica.net%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2016%2f09%2fmegacephala5-XL-
800x546.jpg&ehk=kYB2lS%2fssw0NIA%2bzBWlM3rBkuLo3jszyR5Wihzj7QvQ%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0, https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.tnicpWUj9EikxywK6WsRaQHaHp?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)

9. Mutualism
• Both species are benefited.
1. Dispersive mutualism
Plants+ Pollinators
Plants+ Fruit eaters
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.d9ca1af922442edc4e6898ab9e9a9a1e?rik=wDH1wVAPw6HjBg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fi0.wp.com%2fboingboing.net%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2015%2f07%2f05-pollen-dappled-bat-
670.jpg&ehk=5uoTOaSXzEHG57dIsEbyHftTFcdq1OUczTDwGKbBY4w%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0,https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.t_z8GEgfu9_1jjdEDjR8vgHaE8?pid=ImgDet&rs=1,
https://st2.depositphotos.com/2106449/9081/i/950/depositphotos_90811726-stock-photo-squirrel-eating-a-red-fig.jpg,https://www.quietvillagelandscaping.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Green-8.png)

10. Pollination Syndromes
• Result from coevolution
Animal Features Coevolved flower features
Bees
• Color vision includes UV, not red
• Good sense of smell.
• Require nectar and pollen
• Often blue, purple, yellow,
white( not red colors)
• Fragrant
• Provide nectar and abundant
pollen
Butterflies
• Good color vision
• Sense odors with feet
• Need landing space
• Feed with long tubular tongue
• Blue, purple, deep pink,
orange, red colours
• Light floral scent
• Provide landing space
• Nectar in deep, narrow flora
tubes

11. Birds​
• Color vision, includes red​
• Poor sense of smell​
• Feed in daytime​
• High nectar requirement​
• Often colored red​
• Strong, damage resistant
structure​
• No fragrance​
• Open in daytime​
• Copious nectar in floral tubes​
Bats​ •
• Color blind​
• Good sense of smell​
• Active at night​
• High food requirements​
• Often require perch​
• White or light, reflective colors​
• strong odors​
• open at night​
• copious nectar and pollen
provided​
• Pendulous or borne on tree
trunks​

12. Cheating in Pollination
Calopogon pulchellus Pogonia ophioglossoides Ophrys apifera Bombus bees
(https://s3.amazonaws.com/eit-planttoolbox-prod/media/images/Calopogon_pulchellus-Inflorescence-Charles_Wohlers-CC_BY-NC-ND_2.0.jpg, https://specialvegetation.com/wp-
content/uploads/2020/11/Pogonia_ophioglossoides_Orchi_01.jpg, https://live.staticflickr.com/2821/33876269276_a886326ee3_b.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.fd9615ed98c6eaf2bba126b14e0df8fa?rik=rq%2bS2UkT%2fY5R1w&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.orchidspecies.com%2forphotdir%2f
ophyapifera.jpg&ehk=MZRY48TBJJaXb2CbgWO0wtBv5f%2bSH302CaE%2fhyg2U74%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

13. Invasive mutualism
Promote population growth of weed and pose management problems.
(https://garden.org/pics/2015-03-25/Metrosideros/7cef75.jpg)
(https://shop.cramersblommor.com/images/zoom/alstroeme
riaaureaorangeking.jpg)

14. Mutualism Disruption Hypothesis
Maianthemum racemosum
Alliaria petiolata
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.mjJ5b-
QuLiFYzSAvuIG4iAHaLJ?pid=ImgDet&rs=1, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.b4e89c59b53f4f586fa15e5c4231f6e2?rik=jdJ19JdEOTsy1g&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wnmu.edu%2facademic%2fnspages%2fgilaflora%2fm
_racemosum3.jpg&ehk=Iu%2faqiu5rSr4aqTb3KoZKVC1QnMkEKJk%2bmcvcDn16Hk%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

15. Seed dispersal systems of
plants
(https://agriculturegoods.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/pacu_fish-788x591.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.959021ffb8f40664dc7c3449f4f3a333?rik=nWyhGBNq
nNJhJg&riu=http%3a%2f%2f1.bp.blogspot.com%2f-i6yo1ZFIH3I%2fUVN21-
UhW8I%2fAAAAAAAAC0E%2fZEWiFRCINfo%2fs1600%2fEgyptianFruitBat2.jpg&ehk
=1A3JJqp988zjuTa%2bDUdsM6%2btEmbupoycFgdXcbTz0LY%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRa
w&r=0)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.6b4d03015ca21bd8c32ca6f5ce899a3f?rik=U%2fGAXMzt
uNUThA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fhomeforaday.org%2fgallery%2fbirds%2fsongbirds%2fw
axwings%2fbohemian%2fbohemian_12_wp.jpg&ehk=W7z4JRd9hwW97ywYv3Q5z8n5
ICYhCAI8y4pzI60%2fvr8%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://cdn.imgbin.com/13/12/3/imgbin-ant-insect-biological-dispersal-seed-dispersal-ants-
H1uEN2ac8A68bwZTMCYdA477N.jpg)

16. Mistletoes & Passerine birds
(https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Nickrent/publication/228017178/figure/fig2/AS:288968630390786@1445906898941/Representatives-of-the-five-mistletoe-clades-a-Misodendrum-brachystachyum_Q640.jpg)

17. Cheating in Seed Dispersal
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.be63b34dab503607259628f51b6e0d18?rik=WkGySlCOSahhNQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2ffiles.growingpr
oduce.com%2fgrowingproduce%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2f2017%2f12%2fBacterial_soft_rot_pepper.jpg&ehk=bIUoBLpUHd%2bLDAgTY3sRY4PsjTwKXczh0uefdDYKq
KM%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/b/rotten-quince-apple-fruit-tree-monilia-laxa-infestation-plant-disease-monilinia-
223979753.jpg)

18. Defensive
Mutualism
• Ants & Aphids
• Pseudomyrmex ferruginea &
Acacia cornigera
• Festuca rubra & Acremonium
sp.
https://c1.staticflickr.com/7/6004/5917674016_6ae845719a_b.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.cbad32f53c69573d7966530d6efc5763?rik=lpA6I7tjViBUcA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.bogleech.com%2fnature%2fant-
acacia.jpg&ehk=daTaWCv%2bvQzqlwEvEVaR8Dp15itDD8DVcnPNIu0l%2bdc%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.87910bcdece3ebf56047fac662e3a2fa?rik=0zLaxH8%2fYf1GyA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fdrmgoeswild.com%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2f2016%2f06%2f07-Festuca-
rubra.jpg&ehk=E6ZcbHkVPy%2fjE3tnAsadCk7ags6v1PWdjsWma%2fNyHoY%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.88ee59539ea0ce12ca786e8fe45b15df?rik=aYk6s8z2EFbmNQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.scientificlib.com%2fen%2fBiology%2fAnimalia%2fChor
data%2fMammalia%2fimages%2fOvisAries1.jpg&ehk=J4IIWLMjGoUmz%2fSvi1sT1GxBdubJx7kd5KBEslhmXgE%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0

19. Resource-based
Mutualism
• Myccorhizae
• Leaf cutting ants & Fungus producing gongylidia
• Corals & Dinoflagellates that live within them
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.veKQdaJupoQQQgLY47GAFwHaFj?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janice_Lough/publication/235980086/figure/fig4/AS:66
9549233991692@1536644385901/Corals-dinoflagellates-and-coral-bleaching-a-normally-
pigmented-corals-Acropora.png)
(https://live.staticflickr.com/896/29084659018_eb9720f5f5.jpg)

20. • Lichens
• Honeyguides & Honey badger
• Human beings & Crop plants
Resource-based
Mutualism
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.RXL27B_EWH5kh-Ob5OPZDAHaFj?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) (https://images.on-this.website/news/11121_2077547198514342530a342.jpg)
(https://i.pinimg.com/originals/de/fe/ed/defeedb36f4bceb2924ef988241fb42e.jpg)

21. Commensalism
• Inquilnism- epiphytes
• Phoresy- Flower-inhabiting mites transported by
hummingbirds
• Metabiosis- Hermit crabs & Snail shells
https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/8494/8326801724_b9d5fd86ee_b.jpg, https://images.fineartamerica.com/images/artworkimages/mediumlarge/2/hermit-crab-with-green-snail-shell-madagascar-artush-foto.jpg, https://nas-national-
prod.s3.amazonaws.com/styles/hero_image/s3/web_mites_3n2a1001.jpg?itok=AKPKqUbJ

22. Provider Resource provided and mechanism Beneficiary
Pitcher plant Habitat of water pitcher Mosquitoes
Cattle Stir up insect food Cattle egrets
Sloth Habitat in hair Certain algae
(https://i.pinimg.com/originals/0d/07/bd/0d07bd8edd3f61e
793d6e21cddd46410.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.42aff574316590c90c6a0
1f6fead5a37?rik=vNxSbdHag7sXlg&riu=http%3a%2f%
2fu1.ipernity.com%2f21%2f82%2f90%2f12168290.ab
8b3464.560.jpg&ehk=xil6WguCgAcyxELERIAwSnVjqJP
9JPALP%2fnx%2f2NbDUk%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=
0&sres=1&sresct=1)
(https://www.naturalhistorymag.com/sites/default/files/imagecache/medium/medi
a/2018/03/hovering_mosquitoes_jpg_13961.jpg)

23. Whales Habitat, body surface​ Barnacles
Anemones protection​ Clownfish​
Sea cucumber​ Habitat​ Pearl fish​
(https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/wp-
content/uploads/2018/06/pearlfish-1.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.a6iTtgJQYLLC_N0lw8cWowHaDu?pid=ImgDet
&rs=1)
(https://live.staticflickr.com/2612/5784577319_7bd8be2bf1_
b.jpg)

24. Competition
• (-,-) or (-,0)
• Negative Interaction
Exploitation Competition Interference Competition
Organisms compete
indirectly through
consumption of a limited
resource, with each
obtaining as much as it can.
Organisms interact
indirectly with one another
by physical force or
intimidation.
Indirect Interaction Direct Interaction
Physical force not
employed.
Physical force ritualized into
aggressive behavior.
(https://biologydictionary.net/wp-
content/uploads/2018/10/Intraspecific-competition.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.OUBmnMBfLlZs7tmp3Ic3xwH
aE9?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)

25. Amensalism
 -,0
 Asymmetric competition
 Allelopathy
 e.g.,
 Juglans nigra
 Chrysanthemoides monilifera & Acacia longifolia
(https://i.pinimg.com/originals/58/42/f7/5842f7e28ac72deb
6727a49095a346ad.jpg)
(https://www.gardensonline.com.au/Uploads/Plant/4382/Chrysanthemoides-Monilifera-
3.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.ce92b8674590929acb8acdf6a3703b1f?rik=As3ovwmLj2bbF
w&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.minnesotawildflowers.info%2fudata%2fr9ndp23q%2fpd3%
2fjuglans-nigra-
1.jpg&ehk=%2bCV9ui9jT49kOSBywrIkW2yLb2F7H82rZ2xykos0VQQ%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRa
w&r=0)

26. Apparent
Competition
• Share one natural enemy.
• e.g.,
Pareloaphostrongylus
tenius infection in Alces
alces & Odocoileus
virginanus
(https://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large-
5/moose-alces-alces-bull-in-fall-grand-richard-and-susan-
day.jpg)
(https://media.sciencephoto.com/image/z9520249/800wm/Z
9520249-White-tailed_Deer_Odocoileus_virginianus_.jpg)
(https://i.ytimg.com/vi/Z2xKPioFOyA/maxresdefault.jpg)

27. Associational
susceptibility
• Occur in plants where herbivores spill over from one
species onto another.
Alsophila pometaria
Acer negundo Populus sp.
(https://www.plantstoplant.com/Files/71136/Img/07/Populus-purdomii-5-zoom.jpg)
(https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/sites/plantid7/files/plantimage/acnef0428A.jpg)
(https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/8650/16021051616_e2cdf4a257_b.jpg)

28. Competitive
Exclusion Principle
• Proposed by Garrett
Hardin(1960).
• Species with exactly the
same niche cannot
occupy the same niche.
• Species avoid
competition exclusion
by,
1. Resource partitioning
2. Size difference

29. Ian Kaplan &
Robert
Denno(2007)-
Predictions based
on Competition
Theory
Intraspecific competition should be
severe than interspecific competition
since resource overlap is greater.
The strength of interspecific competition
is greater between more closely related
species or species in similar guild.
The strength of interspecific competition
increases with decreased resources.

30. Predation
• Predator + prey
• Prey being killed by
predator.
• +,-
• Predator occupies
the higher levels of
food chains.
• plays an important role
in maintaining the
population size in
different communities.
https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/b/mantis-10595141.jpg, https://img2.juzaphoto.com/002/shared_files/uploads_hr/1991981_large26010.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.Ra0urKIIoPq0tlvTo38fRQHaEK?pid=ImgDet&rs=1, https://thumbs-prod.si-
cdn.com/eYWTo2JKfQmLB6Az5_MbnlhGhMU=/fit-in/1072x0/https://contest-public-media.si-cdn.com/68bdcfe7-2081-410c-b76f-2b4a12a0a968.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.ba49d107f377024037a474676131f73c?rik=7tHZqKMesTy8lg&riu=http%3a%2f%2f3.bp.blogspot.com%2f-
QJqLqZjzmKs%2fUu2wudHH-QI%2fAAAAAAAAPFs%2fw0i8TcrimCc%2fs1600%2fEastern_Imperial_Eagle3.jpg&ehk=FZoiNcGfj%2bsFHy%2fORZAE6JnPk1%2bwzZ5xrJYgIgv1lJQ%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0, https://i.imgur.com/jBtGvLA.jpg

31. Antipredator Adaptations
Sl
no.
Type of Defense Examples
1 Chemical with aposematic coloration Bombardier beetles, ladybird beetles, many butterflies
2 Cryptic coloration Grasshoppers, seahorses
3 Batesian mimicry Hoverflies, wasps
4 Mullerian mimicry Hoverflies, wasps
5 Physical defenses Turtle shells, beetle exoskeleton, crab claws, scorpion
stingers
6 Intimidation displays Frilled lizards, porcupine fish
7 Predator satiation 13 year & 17 year cicadas

32. Chemical Defenses
• Stenaptinus insignis
• hydroquinone & hydrogen
peroxide-
Explosion chamber- hot
sprays
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.7e67315bc044ae340b5433ea9f2eae1c?rik=6LSTSEqp6v0PdA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.discovercreation.org
%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f02%2fBombardier-
Beetle.jpg&ehk=OHNJv%2fvUaX9nlcODB82Dry8vYdy8%2fUNQBl%2bqZn2t4YM%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://assets.answersingenesis.org/img/articles/am/v15/n1/beetle-chemicals.jpg)

33. Aposematic
coloration
• Advertises unpalatable taste.
• Bright colors of Ladybird beetle
• Monarch butterflies caterpillars, Danaus plexippus-
cardiac glycosides from milkweed plants
(https://www.birdsandblooms.com/wp-
content/uploads/2020/08/monarch-swamp-milkweed.jpg)
(https://pulpbits.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/monarch-butterfly-
caterpillar-and-foodplant-728x546.jpg)
(https://www.homestratosphere.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Asian-
ladybug-june032019-min.jpg)

34. Cryptic Coloration
• An aspect of camouflage
• Method of avoiding detection by predators.
• Grasshoppers
• Leaf wing butterflies
• Stick insects
• Sea horses
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.2b76a42c09eb9eba6a4a8445b48741ad?rik=%2f7GgJt1hglcbKA
&riu=http%3a%2f%2fmysteryfriendships.com%2fillustrations%2fillus_permision%2fstick_ins
ect.jpg&ehk=WXGi5JVJwVawJRIni0qG4H3SkBRfs4lE%2fbYtDKtOA%2b8%3d&risl=&pid=ImgR
aw&r=0)
(https://www.plexuseco.com/EPOW/EPOW-Archive/archive_2006/EPOW-
060626_files/P1050769%20common%20evening%20brown.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.c949abdb90c20b41fa2ce973aff3126f?rik=yLbzd7%2bLLxtEoQ
&riu=http%3a%2f%2fsmallquarry.weebly.com%2fuploads%2f1%2f6%2f4%2f7%2f1647609
8%2f9289241_orig.jpg&ehk=3NBS9GwtHrg0oOfAgRLmyhezj7fYgh6xlXfm20TLWEI%3d&risl
=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.73f49fcd7c7cab579408aaa00b4f186a?rik=WnR1mDgrXW3H
wg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wetwebmedia.com%2fca%2fvolume_4%2fV4I2%2fhippoca
mpus_color2%2f30mustang.jpg&ehk=Im1Dk1e7wV5PfMyzmgtY9uOCd4KsMAXCwvS1R0q8
vJg%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

35. Mimicry
Mimicry
Batesian
mimicry
Mullerian
mimicry
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP._uCzaSxYPXXVnzGnAhN8-
AHaF7?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.2d4da29d7c737da1ae518d7fabf51669?rik=HkpmfUfsa7swvw&riu=http%3a
%2f%2feducation-
portal.com%2fcimages%2fmultimages%2f16%2fHoverfly_vs._honeybee.png&ehk=Sr78m1jgYiooy8LwMa
JUFpSFzbNe0Xtckm9CPl1vT7A%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://3.bp.blogspot.com/_tR7H3y4OuqQ/TE4tyij0kVI/AAAAAAAABBs/QFwkyFsJP
K4/w1200-h630-p-k-no-nu/Coral_snake_mimics.gif)

36. Physical Defense
• Shells of tortoise &
freshwater turtles
• Tough exoskeleton of
beetles
• Venomous stingers of
scorpions
• Powerful jumping ability of
grasshopper
• Gliding of flying fish
(https://i.pinimg.com/originals/d0/19/4f/d0194fdd04b4a233
f06d28d1e5955606.jpg)
(https://whatbugisthat.com/wp-
content/uploads/2021/05/WBIT-005-P15.jpg)
(https://frontiersinblog.files.wordpress.com/2019/06/frontie
rs-in-ecology-and-evolution-scorpion-venom.jpg?w= 940)
(https://images.newscientist.com/wp-
content/uploads/2020/10/21125020/21-oct_uncrushable-
beetle.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.gbleopGmyLYlkTvp70519AHa
E8?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)

37. Intimidation Displays
(https://www.frostscience.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Species-
Porcupinefish.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.6b7dd12a5c48df31e6f237bd882aab14?rik=9ZD30yvIs9NJBw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fimg-
aws.ehowcdn.com%2f750x428p%2fphotos.demandstudios.com%2fgetty%2farticle%2f97%2f103%2f87762859_XS.jpg&ehk=IaCXsCgzYUfNt
%2fdZijLEmTrm887da1zwFIZfM%2b9sGXw%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

38. Predator Satiation
• Synchronous production of many progeny.
• Magicicada sp.( thirteen- & seventeen year old periodical
cicadas).
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.6ASj7txUCuEH9cEBLbaARwHaFj?pid=ImgDet&w=750&h=563&rs=1)

39. Additional prey defenses
​Prey Defense​
​Chameleons, Octopus Change color for camouflage​
​Decorator crabs, caterpillars Cover body with debris for
camouflage​
​Sea cucumbers Evisceration​
(https://saveourseas.com/sosf-shark-
education-centre/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/decorator-crab-
1791x1280.jpg)
(https://cdn.futura-
sciences.com/buildsv6/images/
mediumoriginal/6/1/3/613c542
68c_50169209_holothurie-
evisceration.jpg)
(https://farm9.staticflickr.com/8460
/7888063130_86c7c8642f_b.jpg)

40. Camponotus saundersi ants​ Self-destruction and spraying poison
in all directions​​
​Honey bees​ Vibrate their flight muscles to
raise the body temperature to
lethal levels​​
​Swallowtail butterfly caterpillars​ Ressemble bird droppings on leaf​
(https://images.fineartamerica.com/im
ages-medium-large-5/giant-
swallowtail-caterpillar-doris-potter.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.c56841a080a6
7858a2f89b6f3f37112c?rik=eRHLEAfd3n2c4
A&riu=http%3a%2f%2f4.bp.blogspot.com%
2f-
EcGx_j2gaBc%2fT0jjbhRxmbI%2fAAAAAAAA
De8%2ftdy5DJHt58E%2fs1600%2fCAMPON
OTUSSAUNDERSISP0001B01F101r.jpg&ehk=
7QgeS2KgYmoPHdRM5GzpklgbcuLG%2b%2
bl1DeC0cdSnbcY%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r
=0)

41. Adaptations of
Predator-
Aggressive mimicry
• Crab spiders
• Praying mantis
• Humback
anglerfish, Melanocetus
johnsonii
• Alligator snapping turtle,
Macroshelys temminckii
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.def1eec69b8f968b2a9af848fc3d0f94?rik=x4tAVGq
eiJvk1Q&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.terrarium.com.pl%2fgaleria%2ffoto%2f13772
1.jpg&ehk=zJslxYjuVXuUqwxwWmlNftz60Cy3nfZy%2frx6VDf%2b1cs%3d&risl=&p
id=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://cdn.ebaumsworld.com/mediaFiles/picture/2260628/84612319.jpg)
(https://i.pinimg.com/originals/fd/0c/9a/fd0c9aafc4a146d86
6e138e5e595da19.jpg)
(https://live.staticflickr.com/7493/27161337350_11f8501b14
_b.jpg)

42. • Female bolas spiders
of Mastophora
• Female fireflies of Photuris
• Saber-toothed
blenny, Aspidontus taeniatus
• Zone tailed hawk
Aggressive
mimicry
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.84900a70964c4b17b678a69406454837?rik=gRJughDUz387Fg
&riu=http%3a%2f%2ffishesofaustralia.net.au%2fImages%2fImage%2fjournal.pone.005493
9.g001.jpg&ehk=bvKUirzLdYdBWJjvEmYXZploqiTAG9N9BdUnoANc640%3d&risl=&pid=ImgR
aw&r=0)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.3DmLVnBFBIIxDQk-c7izTAHaEi?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.a3f02d14aaa892aa7e6c36b0505ecf8d?rik=3wQY5ei0TEUUi
w&riu=http%3a%2f%2fil9.picdn.net%2fshutterstock%2fvideos%2f14099453%2fthumb%2
f1.jpg&ehk=%2bBO0fHDptdULsKltcHG%2b5N7ualwZvKhtnG0Qcgq5Bok%3d&risl=&pid=I
mgRaw&r=0)
(https://spiderbytes.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/03/Mastophora_phrysonomamoremales_MattCoors.jpg.jpg)

43. Introduced
predators
posing threat
to Native
prey

44. Herbivory Herbivory
Monophagous
herbivores
Polyphagous
herbivores
(https://live.staticflickr.com/8389/
8626977177_8aa494b69d_b.jpg)
(https://www.wallpaperflare.com/stati
c/356/354/415/grasshopper-grass-
leaves-insects-wallpaper.jpg)

45. Herbivory
Folivores Frugivores Neactarivores Granivores Leaf miners Root feeders Bark feeders Gall makers
(https://www.neprimateconservan
cy.org/uploads/1/5/3/8/15380094/
zanzibar-red-colobus-istock-
535913413-resize_orig.jpg)
(https://www.aquaportail.co
m/pictures1811/nectarivore-
souimanga-malachite-
nectarinia-famosa.jpg)
(https://senego.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/03/oiseaux-
granivores.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.c0389549bf
c9859aabd64b7f1f4754d2?rik=EdhN96B
Wj8OYAw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fplant-
pest-advisory.rutgers.edu%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f04%2fDS
C_0039.bwlm_.small_-
e1365560254619.jpg&ehk=%2fluV7nYs4
ptm47HN%2bO4JQt3B57VtXWHYKLOroF
qNrJc%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://morningc
hores.com/wp-
content/uploads/
2021/03/root-
knot-nematode-
on-rice-
600x800.jpg)
(https://walkthewilderness.net/wp-
content/uploads/2013/08/Elephants-
1104.jpg)
(https://uwm.e
du/field-
station/wp-
content/upload
s/sites/380/201
8/02/gall-
rough-bullet17-
1rz.jpg)

46. Plant Defenses against Herbivory
• Constitutive defenses & Induced defenses
• Mechanical defenses & Chemical defenses
Strategy Example
Mechanical defenses Thorns, sticky hairs, silica
Chemical defenses Alkaloids, phenolics, terpenoides
Mutualisms with defensive agents Bull's horn acacia and ants
Associational resistance Purple loosestrife growing next to Myrica
Mimic semiochemicals Ecdysteroides mimic insect molting hormone

47. Mechanical
Defenses
• Trichomes
• Sticky resins
• Thorns
• Silica deposits
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.dVzjpFu_Zeat7N_qjPqD6gHaE8?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) (https://www.mississippi-crops.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Blast1.jpg)
(https://www.feedipedia.org/sites/default/files/images/karroo_spines_flowers.jpg)
(https://populace.tantaluslabs.com/content/images/2019/04/serratus-trichomes.jpg)

48. Chemical Defenses
• Secondary metabolites
• Second line of defense
• Bad smell, bitter taste or toxic
Secondary
metabolites as
chemical defense
Nitrogen
containing
Alkaloids
Non-nitrogen
containing
Phenolics Terpenoids

49. Alkaloids
• Cyclic ring structure containig nitrogen
• Basic/ Alkaline
• Bitter
• Unpleasant
• 20 classes
• Alkaloid-rich plant families are Solanaceae, Papaveraceae, Apocynaceae, and
Ranunculaceae.

50. Alkaloids
Tropane
alkaloid
Purine
alkaloid
Isoquinoline
alkaloid
Indolizidine
Pyridine
alkaloid
Swainsonine
Scopolamine
Caffeine
Heliotrine
Nicotine
(https://www.bushtrack
erownersgroup.asn.au/i
mages/wildflowers/312
_4__TN1000x800.jpg?gi
d=97350)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.6
6533d3e3ce4a094cf8bc76a7fb
a2c1f?rik=7HNmMux%2bre53
5Q&riu=http%3a%2f%2fluirig.
altervista.org%2fcpm%2falbu
ms%2fbot-
units31%2fnormal_nicotiana-
tabacum58604.jpg&ehk=UERX
z2%2b6sYu2ef2Lwk9CBcYmQf
HQNiY5AIF35bOfMEM%3d&ris
l=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://zelenypodokonnik.ru/i
mages/katalog/G/geliotrop/gel
iotrop_3.jpg)
(https://i.pinimg.com/origi
nals/10/c9/38/10c938a540
a9d2b3500e28ac5cda5261.
jpg)
(https://cdn.shopify.com/s/
files/1/1294/9917/products
/IMG_1878_2048x.JPG?v=1
571681669)

51. Phenolics
Phenolics
Flavonoids Tannins Lignins Coumarins
(https://content.api.news/v3/images/bin/97086f708e
4e166ff613ef3565e6814e)
(https://www.faidateingiardino.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/12/Camellia-sinensis.jpg)

52. Terpenoids
(https://yardsurfer.com/wp-
content/uploads/2020/04/Feature-5-Types-of-Mint-Plants-
to-Grow-in-Your-Backyard-scaled.jpg)
(https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-rsR6fcU52NA/T0Q6LX-
K1mI/AAAAAAAAANw/9ejxNxoenps/s1600/DSC00621.JPG)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.1f3c3580e927fd762c6fc611cbc1
5e10?rik=nm883Di9V%2f%2fe0g&riu=http%3a%2f%2fasiafar
ming.com%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2f2015%2f10%2fGinger-
Plant.jpg&ehk=LuHglB0BA63Tjo9EOXVz84AtOsZ1FaFs3rvS2DP
wzfw%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1)
(https://homegrowncannabisco.com/grow-your-own-with-
kyle-kushman/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/cannabis-
leaves.jpg)
(https://theorganicgoatlady.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/10/IMG_1948.jpg)

53. "Talking
plants"

54. Qualitative &
Quantitative Defenses
(http://cdn2.walkthroughindia.com/wp-
content/uploads/2020/02/Cerbera_odollam.jpg)
(https://www.ayurtimes.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/05/Atropa-Belladonna-750x430.jpg)
(https://img.livestrong.com/630x/photos.demandstudios.com/getty/article/108/140/16
4089709.jpg) (https://www.silvateam.com/en/sites/silvateam.com.en/files/article/silvateam_chestnut_fruit.
jpg)

55. Apparency
Apparent plants Unapparent plants
Always apparent to the herbivores Difficult to find
Large, long-lived Small, ephemeral
Defense mainly quantitative Mainly qualitative
Effective against both
monophagous and polyphagous
herbivores
Against polyphagous herbivores
e.g., Oak trees e.g., weeds

56. Additional Defenses in plants
• Mutualistic relationships
• Associational resistance
• Selective abscission
• Specific species-specific
plant defenses
• Semiochemicals
(https://www.flickr.com/photos/yerokuethe/5944411859/in/
gallery-60205174@N04-72157642004247774/)
(https://www.plantarium.ru/dat/plants/5/582/459582_8aee
673e.jpg)
(https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-
71r7QJXUYPM/U2W8BsIXW8I/AAAAAAAAAHU/QeqQszmykH
U/s1600/01-1005.jpg)

57. Strategies of herbivores to overcome Plant Defenses
Strategy Example
Mechanical adaptation Flat, grinding teeth
Behavioural adaptation Feed when plant defenses are lowest
Digestive enzymes Mixed function oxidases
Microbial symbionts Microbes in stomachs
Host manipulation Gall-inducing insects
(https://live.staticflickr.com/4885/46675283584_7533625e8e_b.jpg)

58. https://static.fanpage.it/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/07/shutterstock_1379632571.jpg, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Pieris_brassicae_06.JPG/1280px-
Pieris_brassicae_06.JPG, https://www.viva.fct.unl.pt/sites/www.viva.fct.unl.pt/files/imagens/artropodes/pieris_brassicae_/pieris_brassicae_2_by_i_s_sepp_cc_by-sa_wikimedia_commons.jpg)

59. Beneficial Herbivory
(https://floridadep.gov/sites/default/files/styles/general_page_images__scaled_to_900_pixels_/public/media-folders/media-root/Florida%20Keys%20Aquatic%20Preserves-
FDEP%20Staff-Mangroves%20at%20Coupon%20Bight%20Aquatic%20Preserve.jpg?itok=c9ShIkO7)

60. Parasitism
(https://www.cabi.org/isc/portfolio/compendia/normal/116330.img
, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.c1a4fc4a10245bae131be229cb3fc1d1?rik=4bp1vLeqiutI
%2bw&riu=http%3a%2f%2f3.bp.blogspot.com%2f-
XWeWDZ5B9YA%2fUDEl9u3SrUI%2fAAAAAAAAAMg%2fSVJ8PMcZNi8%2fs1600%2fPa
rasitism.JPG&ehk=2MEXZS4ca90tgN%2fzXvBY5SlaNNzBAw3l1SherQnmX2g%3d&risl=
&pid=ImgRaw&r=0, https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-
96MuNGuG0VQ/V5EjkqfcNRI/AAAAAAAAUUU/V0dtu3XCLmMbwSd-
pzYpHG2EUo6WhIs8wCLcB/s1600/horn_parasite.jpg, https://antiguanewsroom.com/
wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Snail-infestation-photo-1.jpg, https://cdn-
prod.medicalnewstoday.com/content/images/articles/324/324042/ascaris-worms-
emerging-from-the-common-bile-duct-during-surgery-br-image-credit-susana-
secretariat-2015-
br.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.3d5b155536dff5ae441ca1f08f9ba447?rik=mt4X%
2fc3L3pSAvQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2f3.bp.blogspot.com%2f-aEHsEeST-
x8%2fU8AeS8Xj6xI%2fAAAAAAAABVE%2fGSgohotPL5g%2fs1600%2fbrood%2bparasit
e.jpg&ehk=15O2ipyRYycDYmzU5Nq94Wq2yDcbbYzyD0KOKzN0iR4%3d&risl=&pid=Im
gRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1, https://quizizz.com/media/resource/gs/quizizz-
media/quizzes/8eb4063f-6d14-4c96-acdf-
97e095a86007, https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2018/08
/iStock_000073298977_Large-ef47d9f.jpg?quality=45&resize=960,413)

61. (https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/b/ascaris-parasitic-nematode-worm-image-215697901.jpg)
(https://img1.cgtrader.com/items/2349291/9f67c7ae58/corona-
virus-high-detail-3d-model-3d-model-max-obj-fbx.jpg)

62. (https://sites.psu.edu/siowfa16/files/2016/09/Tapeworm-1-27xnama.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.213a4f87bb828626458599638ec62463?rik=Q6CnvUuiHA6eHw
&riu=http%3a%2f%2ftippvet.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fbigstock-
Lone-Star-Or-Seed-Tick-On-Fing-
31028747.jpg&ehk=1hW1blXV3FMrhRlrm6W7k7BTtsztZM5sNXu7IHTb%2bUk%3d&risl=&pid
=ImgRaw&r=0)

63. (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.f87737112515abe81a8da26952ae1b6e?rik=lcV9KGIa0IH4kg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fphilippineslifestyle.com%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2f001160-01.jpg&ehk=DD39eD%2fu7Hr5VrUiO7dNRPQaKEWLJopJ6oB4uMEt2Os%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.d4dcb6ff34e63cb15cfb5597d30b9486?rik=u0QiR%2btnK2qpoA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fi.huffpost.com%2fgen%2f893
459%2fimages%2fo-MISTLETOE-
facebook.jpg&ehk=L1w5fRF45wBVuoGc1Bfvs3e%2btMoAqEBW736vk%2f%2bxF9M%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

64. Complex Life Cycle of Macroparasites
• Definitive host
• Intermediate host
• Enslaver parasites
E.g., Plagiorhynchus cylindraceus,
Dicrocoelium
dendritium,Toxoplasma gondii

66. Kleptoparasitism
(https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Western_Gull_chasing_Elegant_Tern.jpg/271px-
Western_Gull_chasing_Elegant_Tern.jpg)
(https://live.staticflickr.com/4528/24795226498_bbd2b9f8bd_b.jpg)

67. Brood
parasitism
• Avian brood
parasites- Cuckoos,
cowbirds
• Mafia hypothesis

68. Cannibalism
(https://www.thesun.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/nintchdbpict000291453186.jpg?w=1340)
(https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d456a4d7763444e/img/4aa20b68-415e-4835-bef2-f784d755ee03.jpg)

69. References
1. Stiling, Peter. Ecology: Global Insights and Investigations.The Mc Graw Hills Companies. 2012. 220-348.
2. P. Odum, Eugene. Ecology: The link between Nature and the social sciences, Second edition. Library of Congress Publication Data,
1975,128-147.
3. Memmott, Jane & Gibson, R. & Carvalheiro, Luísa & Henson, K. & Heleno, Ruben & Mikel, M. & Pearce, S.. (2007). The conservation of
ecological interactions. Insect conservation biology. 226-244. 10.1079/9781845932541.0226.
4. Hanna, Cause & Foote, David & Kremen, Claire. Invasive species management restores a plant-pollinator mutualism in Hawaii. Journal of
Applied Ecology.2013, 50, 147–155. doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.12027.
5. Aizen MA, Morales CL, Morales JM (2008) Invasive mutualists erode native pollination webs. PLoS Biol 6(2): e31.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060031.
6. Matsuura, Hélio & Fett-Neto, Arthur. (2015). Plant Alkaloids: Main Features, Toxicity, and Mechanisms of Action. 10.1007/978-94-007-
6728-7_2-1.
7. Mithöfer, Axel & Boland, Wilhelm. (2012). Plant Defense Against Herbivores: Chemical Aspects. Annual review of plant biology. 63. 431-50.
10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103854.
8. hawabteh A, Juma S, Bader M, Karaman D, Scrano L, Bufo SA, Karaman R. The Biological Activity of Natural Alkaloids against Herbivores,
Cancerous Cells and Pathogens. Toxins. 2019; 11(11):656. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11110656.
9. Arab, Alberto & Alves, Marcos & Sartoratto, Adilson & Ogasawara, Dc & Trigo, José. (2012). Methyl Jasmonate Increases the Tropane
Alkaloid Scopolamine and Reduces Natural Herbivory in Brugmansia suaveolens: Is Scopolamine Responsible for Plant Resistance?.
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71. Thankyou