4. CARBOHYDRATES
A Carbohydrate Is A Biomolecule Consisting Of
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) & Oxygen (O)
Atoms, With The Empirical Formula Cm(H2O)n
(Where ‘m’May Or May Not Be Different From ‘n’)
5. CARBOHYDRATES
The Term Is Most Common In Biochemistry,
Where It Is A Synonym Of Saccharide; Derived
From Ancient Greek Word Sákkharon ‘Sugar’,
A Group That Includes Sugars, Starch, &
Cellulose.
11. CARBOHYDRATES: ROLES IN LIVING ORGANISMS
Energy Store: Starch & Glycogen.
Structural Components: Cellulose In Plants & Chitin In
Arthropods.
Component Of Coenzymes (5-Carbon Monosaccharide
Ribose): Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), Flavin Adenine
Dinucleotide (FAD) & Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide (NAD) For Catalysing The Biochemical
Reactions.
12. CARBOHYDRATES: ROLES IN LIVING ORGANISMS
The Backbone Of The Genetic Molecule Known As Ribo-Nucleic
Acid (RNA) For Transmitting The Genetic Codes.
The Related Deoxyribose Is A Component Of Deoxyribo-Nucleic
Acid (DNA) For Storing The Genetic Codes.
Saccharides & Their Derivatives Include Many Other Important
Biomolecules That Play Key Roles In:
Immune System.
Fertilization.
Preventing Pathogenesis.
Blood Clotting & Development.
13. CARBOHYDRATES: NUTRITION & OCCURRENCE
Sugars Appear In Human Diet Mainly As:
Table Sugar (Sucrose): Extracted From
Sugarcane Or Sugar Beets.
Lactose: Abundant In Milk.
Glucose & Fructose: Both Of Which Occur
Naturally In Honey, Many Fruits, Some
Vegetables.
14. CARBOHYDRATES: NUTRITION & OCCURRENCE
Starch Is A Polysaccharide (Complex
Carbohydrate) & Is Abundant In:
Cereals: Wheat, Maize, Rice.
Potatoes.
Cereal Flour: Bread, Pizza, Pasta.
15. CARBOHYDRATES: NUTRITION & OCCURRENCE
Cellulose, A Polysaccharide (Complex
Carbohydrate) Consisting Of 3,000 Or More
Glucose Units Found In:
Cell Walls Of All Plants.
Insoluble Dietary Fibre: Generally Help
Maintain A Healthy Digestive System By
Facilitating Bowel Movements.
19. BIOMOLECULE – CELLULOSE: ADVANTAGES
It Is Extremely Abundant.
Easily Renewable.
Biodegradable.
Difficult To Dissolve With Common Organic
Solvents.
20. The Interest In The Use Of Biobased Filters For
Water Purification Has Increased In Recent Years,
As Such Filters Have The Potential To Be:
Affordable.
Lightweight.
Biodegradable.
CELLULOSE BASED WATER FILTERS
21. Research Has Been Focused On Creating
Sustainable Biobased Nanomaterial Membranes
For Micro Filtration (MF), Ultra Filtration (UF) &
Nano Filtration (NF) From Cellulose
Nanomaterials (CNs):
Cellulose Nano-Crystals (CNCs).
Cellulose Nano-Fibrils (CNFs).
Bacterial Nano-Cellulose (BNC).
CELLULOSE BASED WATER FILTERS
24. CELLULOSE BASED WATER FILTERS
5 STAGES OF WATER TREATMENT:
COAGULATION: The Action Or Process Of A
Liquid Changing To A Solid Or Semi-Solid State.
FLOCCULATION: Bonding Between Particles,
Creating Larger Aggregates Which Are Easier To
Separate.
SEDIMENTATION: The Process Of Settling Or
Being Deposited As A Sediment.
25. CELLULOSE BASED WATER FILTERS
5 STAGES OF WATER TREATMENT:
FILTRATION: Physical Separation Process That
Separates Solid Matter & Fluid From A Mixture Using
A Filter Medium That Has A Complex Structure
Through Which Only The Fluid Can Pass.
DISINFECTION: The Process To Inactivate Or
Destroy Microorganisms, Especially With A Chemical,
In Order To Destroy Bacteria.
27. Cellulose Filter Papers Are Versatile & Diverse
Tools For Microfiltration, That Work By Trapping
Particulates Within A Random Matrix Of
Cellulose Fibers.
CELLULOSE BASED WATER FILTERS
28. CELLULOSE BASED WATER FILTERS
Filters Based On Cellulose Pulp Fibers Do Usually Have
Large Pores That Facilitate Water Percolation, But They
Do Not Sufficiently Remove Bacteria Through Size
Exclusion; Therefore Other Techniques Are Needed To
Achieve A Bacteria Reducing Effect.
By Incorporating Antibacterial Metal Nanoparticles;
Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) & Copper Nanoparticles
(CuNPs) Are Known To Have Good Antibacterial
Effects.
30. Bioplastic Is A Biodegradable Material
That Come From Renewable Sources &
Can Be Used To Reduce The Problem Of
Plastic Waste That Is Suffocating The
Planet & Polluting The Environment.
BIOPLASTICS
32. BIOPLASTICS: ADVANTAGES
Can Be Generated From Renewable Biomass Sources, Such
As Vegetable Fats & Oils, Corn Starch, Straw, Woodchips,
Sawdust, Recycled Food Waste, Etc.
By Processing Directly From Natural Biopolymers Including
Polysaccharides (e.g., Starch, Cellulose, Chitosan, &
Alginate) & Proteins (e.g., Soy Protein, Gluten, & Gelatin).
Chemically Synthesised From Sugar Derivatives (e.g., Lactic
Acid) & Lipids (Oils & Fats) From Either Plants Or Animals,
Or Biologically Generated By Fermentation Of Sugars Or
Lipids.
33. BIOPLASTICS: ADVANTAGES
Bioplastics Are Said To Be Biodegradable If They Are Broken
Down With The Effect Of The
& Which In Turn Use Them As A Food
Source.
The Bioplastics Are Considered Compostable If Within 180
Days, A Complete Microbial Assimilation Of The Fragmented
Food Source Takes Place In A Compost Environment.
34. BIOPLASTICS: ADVANTAGES
Few Commercial Applications Exist For Bioplastics.
Bioplastics Are Used For Disposable Items, Such As
Packaging, Crockery, Cutlery, Pots, Bowls, &
Straws.
Cost & Performance Remain Problematic.
36. BIOPLASTICS: TYPES
Polysaccharide Based Bioplastics.
Starch Based Plastics.
Cellulose Based Plastics.
Other Polysaccharide Based Plastics.
Protein Based Plastics.
Some Aliphatic Polyesters.
Poly-Lactic-Acid (PLA)
Poly-3-Hydroxy-Butyrate (PHB)
Poly-Hydroxy-Alkanoates (PHA)
37. BIOPLASTICS: STARCH BASED PLASTICS
Starch Is Cheap, Abundant, & Renewable.
Thermoplastic Starch Represents The Most Widely Used
Bioplastic, Constituting About 50 Percent Of The Bioplastics
Market.
Pure Starch Is Able To Absorb Humidity, & Is Thus A Suitable
Material For The Production Of By The
Pharmaceutical Sector.
Starch Based Films Mostly Used For Packaging Purposes.
These Films Are Seen Specifically In Consumer Goods
Packaging Of Magazine Wrappings & Bubble Films.
In Food Packaging, These Films Are Seen As Bakery Or Fruit
& Vegetable Bags.
38. BIOPLASTICS: CELLULOSE BASED PLASTICS
Cellulose Bioplastics Are Mainly The Cellulose
Esters Including Cellulose Acetate & Nitro-
Cellulose & Their Derivatives, Including Celluloid.
Cellulose Can Become Thermoplastic When
Extensively Modified.
An Example Of This Is Cellulose Acetate, Which Is
Expensive & Therefore Rarely Used For Packaging.
39. BIOPLASTICS: OTHER POLYSACCHARIDE BASED
Other Polysaccharides Such As Chitosan & Alginate Can Also Be
Processed Into Plastic Forms.
Chitosan Is A Studied Biopolymer That Can Be Used As
Packaging Alternative That Increases Shelf Life & Reduces Use
Of Synthetic Plastics.
Chitosan Is Compiled Of Antimicrobial Activities & Film
Forming Properties Which Make It Biodegradable & Deter
Growth Of Spoilage.
In Comparison To Degrading Synthetic Plastics, Which May Take
Years, Biopolymers Such As Chitosan Can Degrade In Weeks.
40. BIOPLASTICS: PROTEIN BASED PLASTICS
Bioplastics Can Be Made From Proteins From Different Sources.
Wheat Gluten & Casein Show Promising Properties As A Raw
Material For Different Biodegradable Polymers.
Soy Protein Is Being Considered As Another Source Of
Bioplastics.
Soy Proteins Have Been Used In Plastic Production For Over One
Hundred Years (Body Panels Of An Original
Were Made Of Soy Based Plastic).
There Are Difficulties With Using Soy Protein Based Plastics Due
To Their Water Sensitivity & Relatively High Cost.
41. Poly-Lactic-Acid (PLA) Is A Transparent Plastic
Produced From Maize Or Dextrose.
Superficially, It Is Similar To Conventional Petrochemical
Based Mass Plastics Like Poly-Styrene (PS).
Its Advantages Are That It Is Derived From Plants, & It
Biodegrades Readily.
Unfortunately, It Exhibits Inferior Impact Strength,
Thermal Robustness, & Barrier Properties (Blocking Air
Transport Across The Membrane).
BIOPLASTICS: ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS PLASTICS
42. PLA & PLA Blends Generally Come In The Form
Of Granulates.
PLA Is Used On A Limited Scale For The Production
Of Films, Fibers, Plastic Containers, Cups, &
Bottles.
PLA Is Also The Most Common Type Of Plastic
Filament Used For Home Fused Deposition
Modeling or Fused Filament Fabrication (3D
Printing).
BIOPLASTICS: ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS PLASTICS
43. Biopolymer Poly-3-Hydroxy-Butyrate (PHB) Is A
Polyester Produced By Certain Bacteria Processing
Glucose, Corn Starch Or Wastewater.
Its Characteristics Are Similar To Those Of The
Petroplastic Polypropylene.
PHB Is Distinguished Primarily By Its Physical
Characteristics.
It Can Be Processed Into A With A
Melting Point Higher Than 130 Degrees Celsius, & Is
.
BIOPLASTICS: ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS PLASTICS
44. BIOPLASTICS: ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS PLASTICS
Poly-Hydroxy-Alkanoates (PHA) Are Linear
Polyesters Produced In Nature By Bacterial
Fermentation Of Sugar Or Lipids.
They Are Produced By The Bacteria To Store
Carbon & Energy.
In Industrial Production, The Polyester Is Extracted
& Purified From The Bacteria By Optimizing The
Conditions For The Fermentation Of Sugar.
45. BIOPLASTICS: ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS PLASTICS
More Than 150 Different Monomers Can Be
Combined Within This Family To Give Materials
With Extremely Different Properties.
PHA Is More Ductile & Less Elastic Than Other
Plastics, & It Is Also Biodegradable.
These Plastics Are Being Widely Used In The
Applications Such As Sutures,
Slings, Bone Plates & Skin Substitutes; It Is Also
Used For Single Use Food Packaging.
