The effect of cultural activities to eutrophication or algal bloom
Assessment of Groundwater Quality in Redemption Camp
1. 1
ASSESSMENT OF GROUND WATER QUALITY IN THE REDEMPTION
CAMP AREA OF OGUN STATE, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA.
BY
ADEWOJO ADEDAPO OLUWATIMILEYIN
MATRIC No: 070503016
A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL SCIENCES, COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND
APPLIED SCIENCES, CRAWFORD UNIVERSITY, FAITH CITY, OGUN STATE
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc) DEGREE IN GEOLOGY AND MINERAL
SCIENCES.
JUNE 2011
2. 2
CERTIFICATION
I certify that this project was carried out by ADEWOJO ADEDAPO
OLUWATIMILEYIN under my supervision in the Department of Geology and
Mineral Sciences, Crawford University, Faith City, Igbesa Ogun State.
…………..…….………………………………………
V. Oludare Fagoyinbo
{B.Sc (Ife), M.Sc. (Jos), M.Sc (Ibadan)}
Supervisor
……..……………………………………………………..
Dr A.J. Adeola
Head of Department
3. 3
DEDICATION
I will lift up my head unto the Hills from whence cometh my help, my help comes
from God; the creator of Heaven and Earth.
The Lord is my strength and my source of joy; he has given me victory
The Right Arm of the Lord has done glorious things!
To the Creator of the Universe who makes everything happen in his own time,
without his Grace this project wouldn’t be a success.
To my late Dad Jacob Adegboyega Adewojo, may his soul Rest in Peace till we
meet again.
4. 4
ACKNOWLEDEMENTS
My sincere Appreciation goes to my Mum Rev. Mrs. Folashade Adetoun Adewojo who
continually lifted me before the throne of Mercy in prayer and for her financial support.
To my sister Kunbi and young brother Olaoluwa, my two special loves, thanks for the
encouragement and love, you are wonderful.
Special thanks to Mr. Adeola, Miss. Dairo and Col. V.O. Fagboyinbo (rtd) for their motivation
and for believing in me.
Thanks to Miss Olatunji for her enforcement of discipline though it was quite difficult to comply
with but good.
A special heartfelt thanks goes to the members of staff of Geology Department, you are simply
the best, thanks for the knowledge impacted.
Thank you my dear and faithful friends: Awotunde Peter, Aghoghomena Odih, Eyeh Micheal,
Abioye Femi, Deji, Obanla, Lanre, Fisayo, Yomi, Bamgbose Samson, Segun, Ehis, Ronke,
Jumoke, Emmanuel, Yinka, Ajala, and Tunde for your encouragement and the times we shared
together. I love you and appreciate all that you did.
My fellow project mates: Awotunde Peter, Gbede Babatunde, Kolawole Bada
And to everyone that has contributed one way or the other; I love you all and I say a big “Thank
you”.
5. 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page………………………………………………………..……..…………i
Certification……………………………………………………..……..…………ii
Dedication……………………………………………………….……..………...iii
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………..………....iv
Table of Content………………………………………………...……..………….v
List of Tables…………………………………………………………..………..viii
List of Figures………………………………………………………….…………ix
Abstract…………………………………………………………...........………….x
Chapter 1
1.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………1
1.1 Aims and objectives…………………………………………………………3
1.2 Area of study………………………………………………………..............3
1.2.1 Location………………………………………………………………..........3
1.2.2 Climate and vegetation………………………………………………….…...4
1.2.3 Topography/Ecology…………………………………………………..……5
1.2.4 Drainage……………………………………………………………………..6
6. 6
1.3 Literature review………...........................................................................6
Chapter 2
2.0 Geological setting………………………………………………………....8
2.1 Regional geology………………………………………………………..…8
2.2 Local geology………………………………………………………….…10
2.2.1 Stratigraphy of Eastern Dahomey Basin………………………………….10
Chapter 3
3.0 Materials and methods…………………………………………………….13
3.1 Sample procurement……………………………………………………....13
3.2 Purification of Laboratory Apparatus and collection Kegs……………....14
3.3 Sample Analysis………………………………………………………..….14
3.3.1 Determination of Electrical Conductivity………………………………...16
3.3.2 Determination of ph…………………………………………………….....16
3.3.3 Determination of TDS………………………………………………….....16
3.3.4 Test for Chloride………………………………………………………......17
3.3.5 Test for Sulphate………………………………………………………......17
3.3.6 Test for Total hardness…………………………………………………….18
3.3.7 Test for Nitrate……………………………………………………………..18
3.3.8 Test for Metals………………………………………………………….....19
7. 7
Chapter 4
4.0 Result and Discussion…………………………………………………..20
4.1 Result…………………………………………………………………...20
4.2 Discussions……………………………………………………………...23
4.2.1 Physical parameters……………………………………………………..27
4.2.2 Chemical parameters…………………………………………………….28
Chapter 5
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation…………………………………….....35
5.1 Conclusions……………………………………………………………....35
5.2 Recommendations……………………………………………………..…36
References……………………………………………………………………....37
8. 8
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Chemical Analysis (Cations, Anions, and Metals) result.
Table 2: Field Analysis result.
Table 3: Statistical values for analyzed physiochemical parameters.
Table 4: Comparison of statistical values with WHO (2006) and SON (2007)
standard.
Table 5: Sample location.
Table 6: Drinking water standard by The Standard Organization of Nigeria
(SON).
9. 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Ogun State Map.
Figure 2: Base Map of Redemption City.
Figure 3: Map of Nigeria showing Vegetation.
Figure 4: Stratigraphy of Nigeria Portion of Dahomey basin with map of
Nigeria Inset. (Modified after Billman 1992)
Figure 5: Generalized geological map of Eastern Dahomey basin & the
Stratigraphic relationship of the formation. (Agagu 1985)
10. 10
ABSTRACT
This project was aimed at testing water from various boreholes in the Redemption
City in Obafemi Owode LGA of Ogun state southwestern Nigeria for their
suitability and consumption. A total of ten water samples were collected from ten
major boreholes in the area and analyzed for chemical and physical quality
parameters. The ten boreholes serve the inhabitants of the community as sources of
Drinking Water, as well as for Agricultural and Domestic uses. The hydrochemical
parameters determined include major Cations (Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium &
Potassium), Anions (Nitrate, Phosphate, Sulfate & Chloride) and Metals (Zinc,
Iron, Lead, Chromium & Copper) using; Gravimetric method for TDS, EDTA
Titrimetric method for Ca & Mg, Hach Spectrophometer for Nitrate, Titration with
AgNo3 for chloride and Inductively Coupled Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP
– OES) for metals and other components. The physical analysis of the collected
water samples were determined and the results indicate that the pH and Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS) values range from 5.3- 7.2 and 24 - 208 mg/L respectively,
Electrical Conductivity (EC) ranges from 80 – 422 uS/cm. When these values were
compared with World Health Organization (WHO) and Standard Organization of
Nigeria standards, the results show that the water samples are not fit for drinking
but can be used for domestic and industrial purposes without being treated.
11. 11
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is the most essential constituent of the human environment. Water
resources, when available in abundance generate development in socio-
environmental issues crucial to the society and more specifically for industries,
agricultural activities as well as for public use. Surface water classifications are
designations applied to surface water bodies, such as streams, rivers, and lakes.
Such water could be put to use for swimming, fishing, drinking and other domestic
purposes. Each of these uses carries with it an associated set of water quality
standards to protect it. There is no substitute for water in any of its uses.
Consequently, since water is of such importance, where and when it is available, it
must be kept safe and free of contamination and pollution for the survival of
mankind. Until recently, surface water was the major source of water but the
advent of hand-dug wells and boreholes which are relatively recent development
have almost shifted the supply of fresh water from surface water bodies to
underground water supply. The chemical composition of water is an important
criterion that determines the quality of water. Water quality is very important and
often easily degraded. While natural environmental processes provide a means for
removing pollutants from water, there are definite limits. Therefore, concerted
efforts should be made to keep within these limits.
It is up to the society to provide safeguards for the protection and maintenance of
water quality. Pollution of water comes from many sources. Municipalities and
industries sometimes discharge waste disposals into water bodies that are used as
public sources of supply. Surface run-off also brings mud, leaves, and decay
12. 12
vegetation together with human and animal wastes into streams and lakes. In turn,
these organic wastes cause algae and bacteria to flourish. Pollutants deriving from
these and many other processes may enter surface or groundwater directly, may
flow slowly within the groundwater to emerge eventually in surface water, or may
run off the land. Hydro chemical assessment on the water samples shows how the
dissolved substances, which could be heavy metals, trace elements, etc, occur in
water. The proportions of these chemical parameters constitute indices of its proper
use and quality. The improper disposal of refuse dumps and other pollutants,
weathering and subsequent release of weathered materials also contribute to the
chemistry of water.
As a result of the impending danger polluted water could cause to consumers, the
World Health Organization (WHO) establish certain limits as minimum and
maximum allowances for certain substance in water that is intended for drinking
purposes. In Nigeria, the National Council on Water Resources (NCWR), in 2005,
recognized the need to urgently establish acceptable Nigerian Standard for
Drinking Water Quality because it was observed that the “Nigerian Industrial
Standard for Potable Water” developed by Standards Organization of Nigeria
(SON) (the only body responsible for developing National Standards in Nigeria)
and the “National Guidelines and Standards for Water Quality in Nigeria”
developed by Federal Ministry of Environment did not receive a wide acceptance
by all stakeholders in the country. Also, owing to the importance of water and the
fact that water quality issues are health related, the Federal Ministry of Health, in
collaboration with the SON and working through a Technical Committee of key
stakeholders developed a Standard, which was also used for this work.
13. 13
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The main aim of this study is to ascertain the chemical quality of ground water
from different bore holes widely consumed by residents of Redemption City in
comparison with the drinking water standard by World Health Organization
(WHO) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON). However the specific
objectives of the project include:
To know the quality of shallow ground water.
To inform the Redemption City officials of the necessary treatment required
if need be.
To Enlighten the residents the importance of drinking good water and the
risk involved in contaminated water and
To participate in the submission of community drinking water report to the
Federal Environment Protection Agency.
1.2 AREA OF STUDY
1.2.1 LOCATION
Redemption city is located along Lagos Ibadan express way KM 46 in Obafemi
Owode LGA Ogun state. Ogun State is entirely in the tropics. Located in the
Southwest Zone of Nigeria with a total land area of 16,409.26 square kilometers, it
is bounded on the West by the Benin Republic, on the South by Lagos State and
the Atlantic Ocean, on the East by Ondo State, and on the North by Oyo and Osun
States. It is situated between Latitude 6.2°N and 7.8°N and Longitude 3.0oE and
5.0°E.
14. 14
Fig 2: Base map of redemption camp showing points of collected water samples
15. 15
Fig 1:Map of Ogun State
1.2.2 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
The climate of Ogun State follows a tropical pattern with the raining season
starting about March and ending in November, followed by dry season. The mean
annual rainfall varies from 128cm in the southern parts of the State to 105cm in the
northern areas. The average monthly temperature ranges from 23°C in July to 32°C
in February. The Northern part of the State is mainly of derived Savannah
vegetation, while the Central part falls in the rain forest belt. The Southern part of
the State has mangrove swamp.
16. 16
Fig 3:Map of Nigeria showing Vegetation
1.2.3 TOPOGRAPHY/ECOLOGY
The geographical landscape of the State comprises extensive fertile soil suitable for
agriculture, and Savannah land in the North Western part of the State, suitable for
cattle rearing. There are also vast forest reserves, rivers, lagoons, rocks, mineral
deposits and an oceanfront.
17. 17
1.2.4 DRAINAGE
The drainage in Ogun state, which is Ogun River flows in the North South
direction. Although the volume of water drastically decrease during dry season
while the tributaries may dry up for a few weeks or more thus the effect may
however affect the fluctuation of water table in the case of ground water in the
area.
1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW
Evaluation of the suitability of groundwater for different purpose requires the
understanding of its chemical components.
Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule
contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water
is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth in its solid state
(ice) and gaseous state (water vapor or steam). Water also exists in a liquid crystal
state near hydrophilic surfaces.
The principal features of water quality in the streams, lakes and rivers with which
the water engineer is concerned may be considered in three main groups; physical,
chemical and biological characteristics. (Tebbutt 1977).
Color, taste, odor and turbidity of water are measures of its acceptability and
attractiveness to users. These properties/parameters do not necessarily indicate
whether water is safe or not. (Bruce and Hobson 1979).
Furthermore, it is possible for water to undergo change in quality due to rock-
water interaction (weathering) or anthropogenic influence along its course (Todd
1980,
18. 18
Kelly 1940). The awareness of this fact can contribute to effective management
and utilization of this vital resource.
The definition of water quality is very much dependent on the desired use of water.
Therefore different uses require different criteria of water quality as well as
standard methods for reporting and comparing results of water analysis (Babiker
2007). Major chemical elements including Calcium, Sodium, Phosphate, Nitrate,
etc play a significant role in classifying and defining groundwater quality. In this
study, chemical assessment of the Redemption City aquifer was conducted by
analyzing water samples based on these components.
In recent years the mobility of trace metals in ground water has received
considerable attention. The maximum permissible limits for trace elements in
drinking water such as As, Cd, Cr, Fe, Mn and Zn have been set (WHO 1985,
1993, 2006) (table 4)
The study of water chemistry (water quality) gives important indications of the
geological history of the enclosing rock, the velocity and direction of water
movement as well as the presence of hidden deposits (Stanley et.al 1966).
Also Freeze and Cherry (1979) discovered that surface and groundwater are not
safe for consumption and consequently need treatment to render them safe before
they are turned into distribution system.
It is consonance with these that this research is carried out to determine the
chemical quality of the groundwater in the Redemption city.
19. 19
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 GEOLOGICAL SETTING
2.1 REGIONAL GEOLOGY
Nigeria has been divided into Eleven hydrogeological or groundwater areas
namely; Coastal Alluvium, River Course Alluvium, Coastal Sedimentary Low
Lands, Keri Keri formation, Chad Basin, Sokoto Basin, Middle Niger Basin,
Anambra Basin, Cross River Basin, Benue Basin and The Crystalline Area.
(Offodile; 2002)
The Coastal Alluvium and Coastal Sedimentary lowlands form part of Dahomey
Basin that stretches from Southeastern Ghana through Togo and the Republic of
Benin to Southwestern Nigeria. It is separated from the Niger Delta by a
subsurface basement referred to as the Okitipupa ridge. Its offshore extent is poorly
defined. Sediment deposition follows an East-West trend.
In the Onshore, Cretaceous strata are about 200m thick (Okosun 1990). A Non-
Fossiliferous Basal sequence rests on the Precambrian basements. This is
succeeded by coal cycles, Clay & Marls which contain fossiliferous horizons.
Offshore a 1,000m thick sequence consisting of Sandstones followed by blank
fossiliferous shale towards the top has been reported. This was dated by Billman
1976 as being pre-Albian to Maastrichtian.
The Cretaceous is divisible into two geographic zones, North & South. The
sequence in the Northern zone consists of basal sand that progressively grades into
clay beds with intercalations of lignite & shales. The uppermost Maastrichtian is
20. 20
almost entirely Argillaceous. The Southern zone has a more complicated
stratigraphy with limestone and marl beds constituting the major facies.
Sedimentation in the northern zone which is located inland & close to the basin
periphery began during the Maastrichtian when a thin sequence (< 200m) of
unconsolidated sand, grits, silts, clays and shale was deposited. This sequence rests
on the basement; the transitional facies is marked by basal conglomerate or white
to grey sandy & kaolinitic clays derived as degradation products from the
surrounding Precambrian rocks.
In the Southern zone, which is coastal and offshore, the oldest sediments consist
mainly of loose sand, grits, sandstones and clay with shale interbeds which
progressively grade into shale. They are late Albian and possibly Neocomian in
age (Omatsola and Adegoke 1981). The Basal conglomerates have been reported
from outcrops and boreholes (Jones & Hockey, 1964; Omatsola & Adegoke,
1981). The onshore sequence towards the basin periphery in Nigeria correlates
well with the Maastrichtian onshore in the Republics of Benin and Togo. The
Geology of the Togo sector is very similar to that of Nigeria and Benin sectors.
The Cretaceous succession shows marked Lithological changes which have been
expressed in terms of formal and informal lithostratigraphic nomenclature by
previous workers (as shown in the diagram). This can lead to dual or multiple
nomenclatures thus confusion.
21. 21
Fig 4: Stratigraphy of Nigeria Portion of Dahomey Basin with Map of Nigeria Inset (Modified After Billman
1992).
2.2 LOCAL GEOLOGY
2.2.1 STRATIGRAPHY OF EASTERN DAHOMEY BASIN
The stratigraphy of Eastern Dahomey basin has been studied by various
researchers such as Russell, Omatsola and Adekoge and Agagu, Enu and Nton.
The lithostratigraphic units described include the following;
The Abeokuta group; this is the oldest stratigraphic unit overlying the basement
consisted of three formations namely; Ise, Afowo and Araromi formations. The
group is made up of sequence of continental sands, grits and coarse grained to
medium grained sandstones and also with variable but thick interbedded shales,
siltstones and claystones. The rock is soft and fragile but it is in some places
cemented by ferruginous and siliceous material. The sandy facies are tar bearing
22. 22
and the shales are organic rich. The grains are well sorted, fine to medium grained
siltstone at base overlain by shale. The bitumen is found seeping in most areas.
Overlying the Abeokuta group is the Imo group which consists of Ewekoro and
Akinbo formations. The Ewekoro formation is essentially a fossiliferous limestone,
shale, marls with a sandy base as it grades into Abeokuta formation while Akinbo
consists of grey fossiliferous shale and claystone units.
The claystones are concretionary and are predominantly Kaolinite, while the base
of the formation is defined by the presence of glauconitic bands with lenses of
limestone.
Oshoshun formation is the next stratigraphic unit. This formation composes of
massive phosphate bearing shale with interbedded sandy unit overlying Akinbo
formation. It is characterized by a dull brown and brick red sandy mudstone and
claystone.
Underlying this is the sandstone unit of Ilaro Formation, while the youngest
sedimentary formation in the Basin is Benin Formation or coastal plain sand
consisting of series of soft poorly sorted clayey sands, and sandy clay sandstones
showing cross bedding. However, the geology of the study area is mainly
sandstone of the Afowo formation. The grains are well sorted, which is of medium
sizes and small component increases progressively from bottom to top. Natural
seepage of hydrocarbon – bitumen is common especially along river courses.
23. 23
Fig 5: the geological map of Eastern Dahomey basin with the Stratigraphic relationship
24. 24
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD
This chapter gives the full details and method employed in the collection of
samples, preservation, laboratory analysis and parameters that are being analyzed
for. During the period of sample collection a preliminary survey of the study area
was carried out after which 10 Boreholes were selected.
References were also made to past related works, Textbooks, Journals and Maps.
The results of the analysis were compared with the Standard Organization of
Nigeria (2007) and World Health Organization (2006). Other practical aspects
undertaken are discussed in this chapter.
3.1 SAMPLE PROCUREMENT
Following a reconnaissance field investigation, two water samples each were
procured from 10 different boreholes ranging between 10-15metres in depth with
the aid of small plastic containers which was very well rinsed before collecting the
sample. After collection, the containers were properly labeled to avoid mix up.
The second water sample for metal determination was acidified with 3ml
concentrated HNO3 immediately to avoid contamination and acidified samples
were stored into 60ml bottles. Samples for NO3-, SO42- and PO43- were
refrigerated and analyzed within 48 hours. Physical parameters such as pH, Color,
Electrical Conductivity, were determined on the field.
25. 25
3.2 PURIFICATION OF COLLECTION CONTAINERS &LABORATORY APPARATUS
All plastics and glass wares utilized were pre-washed with detergent water
solution, rinsed with tap water and soaked for 48 h in 50% HNO3, then rinsed
thoroughly with distilled ionized water. They were then air-dried in a dust free
environment. This was done to remove any present metals in order to avoid error
3.3 SAMPLE ANALYSIS
Laboratory analysis was done at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture
(IITA) Laboratory Ibadan. Determination of hydro-chemical parameters such as
concentration of Anions & Cations was done using; Gravimetric method for TDS,
EDTA Titrimetric method for Ca & Mg, Hach Spectrophometer for Nitrate,
Titration with AgNo3 for chloride and Inductively Coupled Optical Emission
Spectroscopy (ICP – OES) for metals and other components
Samples were analyzed for the following parameters;
26. 26
PH
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS TDS
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY EC
CALCIUM Ca2+
MAGNESIUM Mg2+
SODIUM Na+
POTTASIUM K+
NITRATE NO3
2-
SULPHATE SO4
2-
CHLORINE CL-
PHOSPHATE PO4
3-
CHROMIUM Cr2+
LEAD Pb2+
IRON Fe2+
COPPER Cu
ZINC Zn
27. 27
3.3.1 Determination of Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity is a reflection of the amount of total dissolved salts (TDS)
or the total amount of dissolved ions in water. To determine the electrical
conductivity, the beaker was filled with distilled water after which the conductivity
meter was switched on. The probe of the meter is then inserted into the distilled
water for zeroing. It is then inserted into the water sample for readings after stable
value.
3.3.2 Determination of pH
pH is the measure of concentration of hydrogen ion. The hydrogen ion is a
characteristic of acids. The pH meter is used. It was first inserted into distilled
water to calibrate the meter to zero, it was later inserted into the water sample
hence readings are recorded.
3.3.3 Determination of Total Dissolved Solids (gravimetric method)
Total Dissolved Solids is a measure of the combined content of all inorganic and
organic substances contained in a liquid in: molecular, ionized or micro-granular
suspended form.
Procedure;
Weigh a petridish. Pipette 100mls of the well mixed water sample into the
petridish and place it in an oven to heat/dry to dryness. Dry the residue at 1000c –
1050c until a constant weight is obtained. Take it, cover the petridish and cool in a
dessicator and reweigh.
28. 28
Calculation:
Total solids =
Increase in weight
Volume taken
Where; Increase in weight = weight of evaporated sample – weight of Petridis
3.3.4 Test for Chloride (titration with AgNo3)
Procedure;
Take 50mls sample, add 2-3 drops of chromate indicator and titrate with 0.1m
silver nitrate solution. Take the reading. Color changes from yellow to brown
1ml of silver nitrate = 0.00354mg/l chloride
Chloride =
titre value×1000×3.546 mg/L
volume taken
3.3.5 Test for Sulphate
Procedure;
Take 50ml of the water sample, add 10mls of bacl2 & put on a water bath for
5mins. Remove from the water bath and add 10mls 0.1m Hcl & allow to cool. A
cloudy appearance indicates the presence of sulphate. The blank is prepared
alongside the sample & the procedure above is applied to it.
Calculation
The blank is titrated in comparison with the concentration of the sulphate in the
sample
29. 29
Sulphate =
titre value×100 mg/l
volume taken
3.3.6 Test for Total Hardness (Ca & Mg)
Procedure; (using EDTA titrimetric method)
Add a pinch of solochrome to 50mls of the water sample
Add about 2-3 drops of conc. NH3
Titrate with 0.1m EDTA & take the reading. The color changes from pink – dark
blue.
Calculation:
titre value×molecular weight of EDTA
volume of the sample
3.3.8 Test for Nitrate
A hach spectrophometer using nitaver 5 indicator was used to carry out and
quantify the nitrate content in the water sample
3.3.9 Test for Metals
Determination of metals for this study was done using Inductively Coupled Optical
Emission Spectroscopy (ICP – OES) Plasma technique which is a rapidly developing
multi-elements method and is used to replace the Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, AAS
method.
30. 30
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter gives the result of the analysis carried out to determine the quality of
ground water widely consumed by the residents of the area.
4.1 RESULTS
The tables below contain the results of the physical and chemical parameters that
are being analyzed for.
32. 32
Table 2: Results of Field Analysis
SAMPLE N0 PH TDS EC GPS READING
1 6.0 24 83 N 60 49’ 010
E 30 28’ 546
2 5.4 40 83 N 60 49’ 96
E 30 28’ 690
3 7.0 188 376 N 60 49’ 220
E 30 28’ 152
4 6.1 49 94 N 60 49’ 120
E 30 28’ 85
5 5.8 46 94 N 60 49’ 541
E 30 28’ 98
6 7.2 149 293 N 60 49’ 75
E 30 28’ 720
7 7.1 208 422 N 60 49’ 150
E 30 28’ 310
8 5.3 41 85 N 60 49’ 035
E 30 28’ 215
9 6.2 45 82 N 60 49’ 114
E 30 28’ 95
10 7.0 152 80 N 60 49’ 352
E 30 28’ 220
33. 33
4.2 DISCUSSION
The results are discussed and interpreted. The two tables below consist of the
statistical result and the comparison of the values with WHO and SON to be used
for the discussion.
Table 3: Statistical values of analyzed physiochemical parameters
Measured Parameters Mean Standard deviation range
Ph 6.31 0.71 5.3 - 7.2
TDS 94.2 71.1 24 - 208
EC 169.2 137.7 80 - 422
Ca 14.13 19.23 2.08 – 46.01
Mg 1.76 1.09 1.03 – 3.68
Na 0.96 0.74 0.37 – 2.25
K 1.41 2.78 0.86 – 2.07
No3
-
0.62 0.16 0.43 – 0.98
So4
2-
1.95 0.55 1.14 – 2.61
Cl-
54 10.04 38 - 70
Po4
3-
0.022 0.010 0.01 – 0.04
Cr 0.013 0.005 0.01 – 0.02
Pb 0.059 0.0280 0.01 -0.09
Fe 0.26 0.15 0.10 – 0.32
Zn 0.201 0.123 0.04 – 0.44
Cu 0.102 0.0282 0.06 – 0.14
34. 34
Table 4: Comparison of statistical values with WHO and SON standard
Measured
parameters
Present study WHO (2006)
standard
SON (2007)
standard
Limit point
From the present
study
Mean
(mg/L)
Range
(mg/L)
Min. Perm.
(mg/L)
Max. Perm.
(mg/L)
Max. Perm.
(mg/L)
Ph 6.31 5.3 - 7.2 6.5 9.5 6.5 – 8.5 Within
TDS 94.2 24 – 208 500 1500 500 Below
EC 169.2 80 – 422 400 1500 1000 Below
Ca (mg/L) 14.13 2.08 – 46.01 75 200 NA Below
Mg (mg/L) 1.76 1.03 – 3.68 40 150 0.2 Above
Na (mg/L) 0.96 0.37 – 2.25 10 <20 200 Below
K (mg/L) 1.41 0.86 – 2.07 10 15 NA Below
No3
-
(mg/L) 0.62 0.43 – 0.98 20 45 50 Below
So4
2-
(mg/l) 1.95 1.14 – 2.61 150 250 100 Below
Cl-
(mg/l) 54 38 – 70 200 400 250 Below
Po4
3-
(mg/L) 0.022 0.01 – 0.04 NA >50 Below
Cr (mg/L) 0.013 0.01 – 0.02 NA 0.05 0.05 Within
Pb (mg/L) 0.059 0.01 -0.09 NA 0.01 0.01 Above
Fe (mg/L) 0.26 0.10 – 0.32 5 10 0.3 Within (SON)
Zn (mg/L) 0.201 0.04 – 0.44 0 5 5.0 Within
Cu (mg/L) 0.102 0.06 – 0.14 0.1 2 1.0 Within
Ppm- parts/million NA- not available WHO- World Health Organization SON- Standard Organization of Nigeria
35. 35
Table 5: Sample location
S/N LOCATION
1 ESTATE RD 16 (KIC/COMFORT PALACE)
2 SENIOR PASTORS LODGE
3 JOY RD POWER HOUSE/CAMP MANAGERS OFFICE
4 GOSHEN ESTATE
5 REDEMPTION ESTATE
6 CANAAN LAND
7 INTERNATIONAL OFFICE
8 HOLINESS ROAD/INTERNATIONAL GUEST HOUSE
9 ZION AND FAITH ROAD
10 MAIN AUDITORIUN/HAGGAI ESTATE
36. 36
Table 6: Drinking water standard by the Standard Organization of Nigeria.
Parameters Max. Perm. Unit Health impact
Aluminum (Al) 0.2 mg/L Potential Neuro-degenerative disorders
Arsenic (As) 0.01 mg/L Cancer,
Barium 0.7 mg/L Hypertension
Cadmium (Cd) 0.003 mg/L Toxic to the kidney
Calcium NA
Chloride (Cl) 250 mg/L None
Chromium (Cr6+) 0.05 mg/L Cancer
Conductivity 1000 μS/cm None
Copper (Cu+2) 1 mg/L Gastrointestinal disorder
Cyanide (CN-) 0.01 mg/L Very toxic to the thyroid and the nervous
system
Fluoride (F-) 1.5 mg/L Fluorosis, Skeletal tissue (bones and
teeth) morbidity
Hardness (as CaCO3) 150 mg/L None
Hydrogen Sulphide
(H2S)
0.05 mg/L None
Iron (Fe+2) 0.3 mg/L None
Lead (Pb) 0.01 mg/L Cancer, interference with Vitamin D
metabolism, affect mental development in
infants, toxic to the central and peripheral
nervous systems
Magnesium (Mg+2) 0.20 mg/L Consumer acceptability
Manganese (Mn+2) 0.2 mg/L Neurological disorder
Nitrate 50 mg/L
Ph 6.5 – 8.5 mg/L
Phosphate >50 mg/L
Potassium 15 mg/L Nerve stimulus, protein dissolution
Sodium 200 mg/L
Sulfate 100 mg/L
TDS 500 mg/L
Zinc (Zn) NA mg/L Growth development, immune system
37. 37
4.2.1 THE PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
[A] APPEARANCE
Six out of the ten bore hole water samples were clear in appearance while sample
No 5 (Redemption estate) and sample No 8(Holiness road) remained brownish in
color. This appearance could be as a result of lateritic contamination or pollution
from the soil.
Sample 2 (senior pastor’s lodge) and sample 4(Goshen estate) appeared in milky
white color which is as a result of the impacted clayey soil layer. Before water can
be said to be safe and recommended for drinking, it must appear colorless.
According to W.H.O (2006), FEPA and SON (2007) water must remain clear
before it can be attractive to its users.
[B] pH
Ph is the measure or quantity of concentration of hydrogen ion, which is a
characteristic of acids. The measurement indicates if the water is acidic, neutral or
alkaline. Following the WHO (2006) and SON (2007) standard, the minimum and
maximum permissible pH unit/value of an acceptable water is 6.5 – 9.5 and 6.5-
8.5mg/L respectively. The pH range of the collected samples is 5.3 – 7.2 with an
average value of 6.31mg/L. This falls within the acceptable range of portable
water.
[C] TDS (total dissolved solids)
Naturally the most common dissolved substances in water are minerals that are as a
group, referred to as Dissolved Solids. They include calcium, sodium, bicarbonate,
chlorine along with plant nutrients such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus and trace
elements such as Chromium and Arsenic. The measurement of all these
38. 38
constituents (organic & inorganic) in a liquid is known as TDS. According to
WHO 2006 & SON 2007, the minimum and maximum unit is 500 – 1500 (mg/l) &
500 (mg/l) respectively. The TDS range of the water samples is 24 – 208 in range
with an average value of 94.2 mg/L. This is far below the minimum standard
however; I do not think it has any negative effect.
[D] CONDUCTIVITY
Electrical conductivity estimates the amount of total dissolved salts or total amount
of dissolved ion in water. The conductance of ground water have a wide range
depending on the lithology and length of reaction time and in some cases may
approach those of the rain from which they originated or exceed that of the sea
water. From the result of the analysis EC range IS 80 – 428 with an average of
169.2. According to W.H.O (2006) it must be between 400 and 1500 while SON
puts it at 1,000 mg/L. The result generally falls below this range. Since low amount
of electrolytes does not have any serious negative effect on human beings, the
range is therefore acceptable.
4.4.2 THE CHEMICAL PARAMETERS
ANIONS
[A] CHLORINE
Chlorine is one of the components of water used to determine its usefulness and
it’s generally present in most natural waters. High concentration of this anion may
indicate sewage pollution for instance urine contains about 5,000 milligram of
chloride per liter. High concentration of chlorine is injurious to health causing
Anemia and Nervous system disorder. Following the WHO and SON standard the
minimum and maximum permitted value for chlorine is 200 – 400 mg/L and
39. 39
250mg/L respectively. Chloride range of the collected samples is 38 – 70 with an
average value of 54mg/L. The result falls below the standard range.
[B] SULFATE
Sulfate is found in almost all natural water. The origin of most sulfate compounds
is through the oxidation of sulfite ores, the presence of shales or industrial wastes.
It’s one of the major dissolved components of rain. Some soils and rocks contain
sulfate mineral therefore as ground water moves through these, some of them is
dissolved into the water. High level sulfate causes dehydration & diarrhea. Kids
are often more sensitive to sulfate than adults. Sulfate ranges from 1.14 to 2.61
with an average value of 1.95mg/L for this study while the WHO and SON
standard is 150 – 250 and 100 mg/L respectively. Sulfate range for this study is
below standard.
[C] NITRATE
Nitrate being measured as nitrogen finds its way into water body through run off
from fertilizer, leaching from septic tanks, sewage and erosion of natural deposits.
Excess nitrate above the normal level produces methemoglobinemia in infants
below age six months. The infected person could become seriously ill and if
untreated, may die. From the results gathered during the analysis nitrate range is
0.43 – 0.98 and it does not fall within the W.H.O (20-45mg/L) & SON (50mg/L)
limit.
[D] PHOSPHATE
Phosphates are chemical compounds containing phosphorus which is a non-
metallic element necessary for life and is found in rock as inorganic phosphates.
As water runs over and through rocks it carries off small amounts of this mineral.
40. 40
Inorganic phosphates are a plant nutrient and are taken in by plants with water and
incorporated into organic phosphate compounds. Animals obtain their essential
phosphorus from phosphates in water and plant material. Natural waters have a
phosphorus concentration of approximately 0.02 parts per million (ppm) which is a
limiting factor for plant growth. On the other hand, large concentrations of this
nutrient can accelerate plant growth. The phosphate range of this study is 0.01 –
0.04 with an average value of 0.022. This falls within the range.
CATIONS
[A] CALCIUM
Calcium occurs in water naturally. Seawater contains approximately 400 ppm
calcium. One of the main reasons for the abundance of calcium in water is its
natural occurrence in the earth's crust. Rivers generally contain 1-2 ppm calcium,
but in lime Areas Rivers may contains calcium concentrations as high as 100 ppm.
It may dissolve from rocks such as limestone, marble, calcite, dolomite, gypsum,
fluorite and apatite into ground water. It’s a determinant of water hardness,
because it can be found in water as Ca2+ ions and may negatively influence toxicity
of other compounds. It is also present in muscle tissue and in the blood, required
for cell membrane development and cell division, and it is partially responsible for
muscle contractions and blood clotting. Calcium regulates membrane activity, it
assists nerve impulse transfer and hormone release, stabilizes the pH of the body,
and is an essential part of conception. WHO recommends 75 – 200mg/L for good
calcium content. Calcium range of this study (2.08 – 46.01mg/L) falls below
standard.
41. 41
[B] MAGNESIUM
Magnesium is the second determinant of water hardness. It is the most commonly
found cation in water after sodium. A large number of minerals contain magnesium
a good example is dolomite. It is washed from rocks and subsequently ends up in
water. It can also be introduced into water through chemical industries, fertilizer
application, cattle feed etc. its abnormal effects include hardness, vomiting, nerve
problems, muscle slackening. According to SON the permissible limit is 0.2mg/L.
Mg range of this study (1.03 – 3.68 mg/L) is higher than the SON standard.
[C] SODIUM
Sodium ion is soluble in water, and is thus present in great quantities in the Earth's
oceans and other stagnant bodies of water. In these bodies it is mostly
counterbalanced by the chloride ion, causing evaporated ocean water solids to
consist mostly of sodium chloride, or common table salt. Sodium ion is also a
component of many minerals. It is an essential nutrient that regulates blood
volume and blood pressure, “maintains the right balance of fluids in the body,
transmits nerve impulses, and influences the contraction and relaxation of
muscles”. It is also necessary for maintaining osmotic equilibrium and the acid-
base balance. According to WHO and SON the accepted value of sodium is 10 to
<20 mg/L thus the sodium range of this study (0.37 – 2.25) is below standard.
[D] POTASSIUM
Seawater contains about 400 ppm potassium. It tends to settle, and consequently
ends up in sediment mostly. Rivers generally contains about 2-3 ppm potassium.
This difference is mainly caused by a large potassium concentration in oceanic
basalts.
42. 42
In water this element is mainly present as K+ (aq) ions. Vital functions of
potassium include its role in nerve stimulus, muscle contractions, blood pressure
regulation and protein dissolution. It protects the heart and arteries, and may even
prevent cardiovascular disease. Potassium shortages are relatively rare, but may
lead to depression, muscle weakness, heart rhythm disorder and confusion.
Potassium loss may be a consequence of chronic diarrhoea or kidney disease,
because the physical potassium balance is regulated by the kidneys. When kidneys
operate insufficiently, potassium intake must be limited to prevent greater losses.
The potassium range of this analysis is 0.01 – 0.04 with an average value of 0.022.
The WHO standard for potassium ranges from 10 to 15 mg/L hence the potassium
range of this study falls below the standard unit.
4.4.3 METALS
[A] LEAD
Lead is a metal found in natural deposits. It’s rarely found in source water, but
enters tap water through corrosion of plumbing materials. The presence of lead in
drinking water could cause a variety of adverse health effects for example in babies
& children, exposure to lead in water above the action level can result in delay in
physical and mental development. In adults, it can cause increase in blood
pressure. Adults who drink this water over many years could develop kidney
problems. From the result of the analysis Lead Pb range is 0.01 – 0.09 with an
average value of 0.059 mg/L. WHO and SON maximum permissible for lead is
0.01mg/L, therefore lead range for this study is above standard which might result
from the corrosion of metal pipes.
43. 43
[B] CHROMIUM
Chromium does not occur freely in nature. The main chromium mineral is
chromite. Chromium compounds can be found in waters only in trace amounts.
The element and its compounds can be discharged in surface water through various
industries. It is applied for example for metal surface refinery and in alloys. The
minimum and maximum permissible limit of chromium according to WHO (2006)
is 0.01- 0.06mg/L and 0.05 mg/L for SON. Chromium range for this study 0.01-
0.02 is within standard.
[C] COPPER
The major sources of copper in drinking water are corrosion (a dissolving or
wearing away of metal caused by a chemical reaction between water and your
plumbing) of household plumbing systems; and erosion of natural deposits. The
amount of copper in water also depends on the types and amount of minerals in the
water, how long the water stays in the pipe, the amount of wear in the pipe, the
water’s acidity and its temperature.
People who drink water containing copper in excess of the action level may, with
short term exposure, experience gastrointestinal distress, and with long-term
exposure may experience liver or kidney damage. Copper ranges from 0.06 to 0.14
which falls within the accepted permissible limits of WHO and SON.
[D] IRON
Iron is one of the earth's most plentiful resources, making up at least five percent of
the earth's crust. Rainfall seeping through the soil dissolves iron in the earth's
surface and carries it into almost every kind of natural water supply, including well
water. Although iron is present in our water, it is seldom found at concentrations
44. 44
greater than 10 milligrams per liter (mg/1) or 10 parts per million (ppm). Iron is
not considered hazardous to health. In fact, iron is essential for good health
because it transports oxygen in your blood. The present recommended limit for
iron in water, 0.3 mg/L and is based on taste and appearance rather than on any
detrimental health effect. The range of iron (0.10 – 0.32mg/L) for this study is
within the limit.
[E] ZINC
Zinc aids in the proper assimilation of vitamins, normal growth and development,
maintenance of body tissues, sexual function, immune system, chemical
detoxification, synthesis of DNA, and helps reduce healing time both before and
after surgery. For this study the zinc component ranges from 0.04 – 0.44 with an
average value of 0.201. This falls within the WHO and SON standard with is
0.5mg/L
45. 45
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
The essence of this project is to determine the quality of groundwater from the
major boreholes widely consumed in Redemption City of Obafemi Owode Local
Government Area Ogun state Southwestern Nigeria.
From the research work, I concluded that the water is not fit for consumption
except it is treated for Lead Pb2+ and Magnesium Mg2+, because following the
SON standard which is concerned with Nigeria & used for this study, only
maximum permissible limit exist. This implies that any value below the SON
maximum permissible limit is acceptable and values above the limit renders the
water unfit. Therefore only Lead pb2+ and magnesium mg2+ is above the action
point. Other measured parameters such as Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, Nitrate,
Sulfate, Chlorine, Phosphate, TDS, EC, pH, Chromium, Iron, Zinc, and Copper all
fall below the SON maximum permissible limit. Only Chromium, Iron, Zinc,
Copper, pH are within the minimum & maximum range of the WHO standard.
The lead may be as a result of external invasion from abandoned Lead acid storage
batteries or from the corrosion of Lead used in household plumbing materials such
as galvanized pipe, solders used in pipe fittings, or from coated lead storage tanks
while the magnesium may be as a result of leaching of magnesium ions into the
water from the impacted shale layer.
46. 46
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are offered:
The water should be treated for Lead.
Lead containing materials such as galvanized pipes, tanks etc within the
control of the water system should be replaced with plastic ones.
Drilling up to the shale zone should be avoided to reduce magnesium
contamination.
Battery workshops should be cited far away to avoid contamination of Lead.
The Health officials of the Area should educate the Residents on the need for
safe drinking water.
Domestic water treatment plants such as solid block & precoat adsorption
filters made with carbon should be installed to improve the water quality.
Water management programs should be made available for residents.
Dumping of waste materials into river ogun/omi should be stopped because
it serves as a source of recharge for some of the aquifers.
Bacteriological test should also be carried out to determine the water quality.
It is recommended that enforcement laws are made available to protect water
quality.
The water should be boiled to reduce Hardness.
47. 47
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