Assessment of Groundwater Quality in Ilorin, North Central Nigeria

Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, February, 2017; Vol 13(1):111-126
Copyright © Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.
Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng
111
ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN ILORIN, NORTH CENTRAL
NIGERIA
O.M. Kolawole* and O. Afolayan
(Department of Microbiology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Infectious Diseases and Environmental Health Research Group, Department of Microbiology,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin. Nigeria.)
*
Corresponding author’s e-mail address: omk@unilorin.edu.ng & tomak7475@gmail.com
Abstracts
Growth in human population and anthropogenic activities has increased the rate of groundwater pollution in the
world. This study assessed the quality of water samples collected from open wells from eight different locations in
Ilorin, North Central, Nigeria between December 2014 and June 2015. The physicochemical parameters of water
samples were analyzed using standard methods. Total bacterial count and total coliform count were determined by
standard plate method and membrane filtration technique respectively. Identification of isolated bacteria was done
using Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology and confirmed by sequencing the DNA of the isolates. The
physicochemical values of the water samples ranged as follows: temperature (28.20±0.440
C to 27.50±0.370
C), pH
(7.22±0.06 and 6.80±0.04), conductivity (577.80±41.28 µS/cm), turbidity (6.31±0.21 to 2.69±0.40NTU), total
suspended solids (6.20±2.60 to 47.50±1.70mg/l), total dissolved solids (295.40±37.12 to 208.40±31.19 mg/l),
dissolved oxygen (9.81±0.37 to 7.04±0.40mg/l), biochemical oxygen demand (6.25±1.31 to 4.38±0.28mg/l), total
hardness (294.20±3.81 to 278.10±7.14mg/l), nitrate concentration (23.80±1.61 to 17.47±3.58mg/l) and sulfate
concentration (30.58±2.43 to 25.35±1.16mg/l). The water sources were found to have a total bacterial count and
total coliform counts above the recommended national and international guidelines. The contamination of the water
sources by E. coli and other pathogenic bacteria implies that they are not fit for human consumption.
Keywords: Groundwater, physicochemical, Coliform, pollution, E. coli
1. Introduction
One of the most essential and abundant resources in the world is water (UNDP, 2006). All life on
earth depends on the availability of water for their survival, growth and development (Simpi et
al., 2011). Well water has been considered as one of the purest form of water in nature and
meets the overall demand of rural and semi-urban people. However, increase in industrial
activities has raised serious concern regarding the susceptibility of well water contamination due
to industrial wastes (Tyagi et al., 2002). The high rate at which cities are growing across the
world is frightening; this implies that human population with its associated sanitation problems
are growing faster than supply of qualitative water (Jackson et al., 2001). This situation has led
to a reduction in the per capita availability of quality water in the coming century Ajayi and
Adejumo, 2011).
A large percentage of the population in developing countries lack adequate potable water supply
thus they are compelled to use marginally qualitative water from other sources like springs,
streams, shallow wells and boreholes for domestic and drinking purposes (Jamielson et al., 2004;
Welch et al., 2000).
The increase in human population and anthropogenic activities which has led to the demand for
water for domestic and industrial activities have continuously threatened this valued resource

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112
(Umeh, 2005). Water quality is a function of both natural and anthropogenic activities (Kolawole
et al., 2013).
Today groundwater reservoirs are constantly being polluted at a high rate through the addition of
industrial, domestic and agricultural wastes (Aremu et al., 2011). In most developing countries,
many communities suffer scarcity of qualitative water. Only little percentage of total urban
population has direct access to treated pipe-borne water. The larger percentage has other water
sources of questionable quality to contain with (Gerald, 2011).
According to WHO (2000), about 1 billion people in developing countries lack access to safe
drinking water with a greater percentage found in developing countries. This increasing
deficiency of potable water has necessitated the use of water from other sources that are prone to
contamination. Consequently, developing countries are particularly plagued with water-borne
diseases (Aderibigbe et al., 2008). Therefore, it is essential to routinely examine the sources and
quality of drinking water to safeguard public health.
The analyses of some water sources have revealed a considerable degree of water contamination
by total and fecal coliforms (Opisa et al., 2012). The presence of fecal coliforms in drinking
water is an indication of contamination of such water with fecal matters. These indicators of
water quality were found to be more prevalent in unprotected water sources (Zamxaka et al.,
2004).
The provision of clean drinking water, especially in developing countries like Nigeria, has
always been a major challenge (Raji and Ibrahim, 2011). In Nigeria, many rural dwellers rely on
well, stream and river water for their domestic use due to lack of access to potable water (Shittu
et al., 2008). Almost all groundwater sources (wells) which are not used during the rainy season
when water is adequately available are major sources of water in homes during the dry season
when the resource is scarce in Ilorin. These water sources are contaminated by various
pathogenic microorganisms – bacteria, fungi, and viruses; these pathogenic agents have been
implicated in various diseases that affect human health.
Almost every community in Ilorin has several wells (open and closed) which serve as water
sources for the inhabitants. Within these communities there are various improperly managed
sanitation systems; wastes are disposed indiscriminately on major roads, market places,
inadequate toilet facilities and in water bodies. These practices potentially pollute the
groundwater. In this study, the extent of water pollution of open well located within Ilorin
municipality is assessed.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Description of the study area
The study was conducted in Ilorin, the capital of Kwara State, Nigeria situated 306km inland
from the coastal city of Lagos and 500km from the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja. The
area is located between Latitude 80
33’N and Longitude 40
55’E. As of 2007, Ilorin had a
population of 847,582 making it the 13th
largest city in Nigeria by population (The World
Gazetteer, 2013).

Kolawole and Afolayan: Assessment of Groundwater quality in Ilorin, North Central Nigeria
AZOJETE, 13(1):111-126 ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng
113
Figure 1: Geographical map of the study area showing the sampling sites
KEY: = Sampling sites;
A=Airport; B=Asa dam; C = Tanke; D= Agbo Oba; E= Gaa Akanbi; F=Maraba; G=Opo Malu;
H=Oja Oba
2.2 Water sampling
A total of forty water samples were collected from open wells in eight locations namely Airport
road, Asa dam, Tanke, Agbo Oba, Opo Malu, Gaa Akanbi, Maraba and Oja Oba located within
Ilorin, North Central, Nigeria between December 2014 and June 2015 for physicochemical and
bacteriological analysis. Water samples were collected using standard method as described by
Aminu and Amadi (2014). The water samples were transported in an ice pack to the laboratory
and analyzed. Each sample was collected in two sterile sample bottles for five different days
from each of the eight open wells. The duplicate samples were used for physicochemical and
bacteriological analyses separately. For bacteriological analysis, the water samples were
collected between 7:30am and 9:00am with sterile plastic containers; transported to the
laboratory in an ice box and analyzed immediately.
The open wells were situated in proximity to septic tank, uncompleted building used as refuse
dump site, abattoir, drainage, car washing centre.
H
EA
B
C
D
F
G

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2.3 Physicochemical Analysis
The physicochemical properties of the water samples were analyzed using standard methods as
stated by APHA (2002). The temperature of the water samples was determined using
thermometer, pH was measured using a digital electrode pH meter (met rohm 632), the electrical
conductivities and turbidity of the water samples were determined using conductivity kit Wag
WT 3020 (Hach model no: 5798A) by WAGTECH international. The Dissolved oxygen (DO),
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) were determined
using the Winkler’s titration method as described by APHA (2002). Total hardness and sulfate
concentrations were determined by the titrimetric method, total solids, total dissolved solids, and
total suspended solids were determined by the gravimetric method, and the concentration of
nitrate was determined calorimetrically by Spectronic-20 (Gallenkamp, United Kingdom) as
described by APHA (2002).
2.4 Bacteriological Analysis
The total bacterial count was determined by standard pour plate methods using Nutrient Agar
(oxoid) (Fawole and Osho 2001). The number of total coliforms was determined with membrane
filtration techniques using Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (oxoid) as described by APHA (2002).
For the determination of total bacterial counts and total coliform count, the water samples were
incubated at 370
C. Generally bacteria including coliforms grow optimally at 37 C while fecal
coliforms thrive at a higher temperature of 44 C.
2.5 Identification of bacterial isolates
The bacterial isolates were identified by morphological characterization and genotypic
characterization - DNA extraction using QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (250) cat number 51306, DNA
amplification using 16S forward primer (27F: AGAGTTTGATCMTGGCTCAG), 16S reverse
primer (1525R: AAGGAGGTGWTCCARCCGCA) (Weisburg et al., 1991). The products of the
PCR were purified, processed and sequencing reaction were carried on an Applied Biosystems
(Model 3130) automated sequencer. The sequences were submitted to the National Center for
Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Dublin, Ireland, gene bank for identification.
2.6 Statistical Analysis
Relationships between variables of physicochemical parameters and biological parameters were
determined by Pearson correlation. Analyzes were carried out with the aid of Statistical Package
for Social Science (Version 21).
3.0 Results and discussions
The physicochemical properties of the water samples from the open wells from the eight
different locations within the Ilorin Metropolis are presented in Table 1 and 2. The
physicochemical analysis results indicate that the temperature of the water samples falls within
recommended values for groundwater (0-300
C). The results indicated that the temperature of the
water samples as at the time of the analysis ranged from 28.20±0.440
C to 27.50±0.370
C with
water sample D recording the highest temperature while water sample H recorded the lowest

115
temperature. Factors such as climate or temperature of the geographical area, direct sunlight and
depth of the open wells could be responsible for the relatively constant temperature of water
samples (Ekhaise and Anyansi, 2005). This may affect the biochemical and physiological
activities of organisms found in the water sources. The temperature range is in consonance with
Ajayi and Adejumo, (2011) who reported 28.30
C for well water in Akungba Akoko in Ondo
State.
The pH values of the water samples recorded generally varied between 7.22±0.06 and 6.80±0.04
with sample D and E having the highest and lowest pH values respectively. The pH of the water
samples also complied with the values (6.5-8.5) recommended by WHO and agreed with the
results of Ogbonna et al., (2010) for various groundwater samples. The pH of water samples
could be determined by type of soil and free carbon (IV) oxide level in the water samples. The
fluctuations in optimum pH ranges may result in increase or decrease in the toxicity of poisons in
water bodies (Okonko et al., 2008). The importance of the hydrogen ion concentration (pH) of
water is evident in the manner it affects the chemical reactions and biological systems (Kolawole
et al., 2013).
The electrical conductivity ranged from 577.80±41.28 µS/cm in sample F to 476.50±48.72
µS/cm from sample A. Turbidity of the water samples generally varied between 6.31±0.21NTU
and 2.69±0.40NTU; sample H had the highest turbidity while sample C had the lowest turbidity
(Table 1).The turbidity of the water sample G and H did not comply with standard requirements.
Their values exceeded the 5NTU recommended by WHO, (2006). This may be due to parental
rock activities and surface run off. However, the result agreed with Ezeribe et al. (2012) who
reported 6.30±1.00NTU turbidity for well water in Plateau State, Nigeria. Excessive turbidity, in
drinking water, may represent a health concern. Furthermore, turbidity renders drinking water
aesthetically unappealing. If not removed, turbidity shields pathogens from the bactericidal effect
of treatment chemicals, hence promoting the regrowth of pathogens in the distribution channels,
resulting in an outbreak of water-related diseases, which have caused significant cases of
gastroenteritis throughout the world (Okpokwasili et al., 2013).
The highest total solid (348.80±41.58mg/l) was recorded from sample H while the lowest value
(258.50±28.48mg/l) was from sample C. Total suspended solids recorded were observed to vary
between 56.20±2.60mg/l and 47.50±1.70mg/l.
Sample H recorded the highest TDS of 295.40±37.12mg/l while sample C had the lowest TDS of
208.40±31.19 mg/l. The Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) represents the percentage of inorganic
substances available in water which reveals the nature of water quality (Olajire and Imeokparia,
2001). Sewage runoff natural sources, industrial and agricultural waste water and chemicals used
in the water treatment processes can influence TDS in drinking water. The total solids and total
dissolved solids of the water samples from the eight locations fall below the recommended value
of 500mg/l (EPA, 2003; WHO, 2001). High total dissolved solids gives objectionable odour or
offensive taste in water (Aydin, 2007). This result was also in consonance with an earlier study
by Ogbonna et al. (2010) and Shittu et al. (2008) on well water.

116
A narrow range of dissolved oxygen of the water samples was observed with 9.81±0.31mg/l
being the highest and 7.04±0.40mg/l the lowest. All the water samples had dissolved oxygen
exceeding the recommended 5mg/l by WHO (2006). Dissolved oxygen is one of the most
important parameters of water. Direct and indirect information such as nutrient availability, the
level of pollution, metabolic activities of microorganisms, stratification, and photosynthesis can
be deduced from its correlation with water body (Premlata, 2009). Dissolved Oxygen is of great
significance to all living organisms; its presence in water bodies can result from direct diffusion
from air or production by autotrophs through photosynthesis. Dissolved oxygen concentration is
one of the most important parameters that can be employed to determine the distribution and
abundance of several algal groups and indicate water purity (Bhatt et al., 1999).
Sample F recorded the highest BOD of 6.25±1.31mg/l while sample D recorded the lowest BOD
of 4.38±0.28. The result of the BOD of the water samples did not comply with the recommended
standard value (<3mg/l) for drinking water. They all showed high values. The COD of the water
samples also exceed the maximum permissible limit for drinking water. This could be as a result
of the heavy contamination the water sources are exposed to. The values recorded for the
chemical oxygen demand generally ranged from 12.72±0.39mg/l to 8.15±0.32mg/l. Biochemical
Oxygen Demand and Chemical Oxygen Demand are used to measure oxygen used and equate it
to the amount of organic matter available in the water sample (Clarke et al., 2004). BOD
measures the amount of oxygen utilized by microorganisms, in this case, bacterium, to oxidize
organic matter available within the water sample (Parihar et al., 2012).
The highest total hardness of 294.20±3.81mg/l was found in sample F while sample C recorded
the lowest total hardness of 278.10±7.14mg/l. From the results in Table 1, the total hardness of
the samples was less than 500mg/l which falls within the maximum permissible limit for
drinking water by WHO (2006). The result of this study contradicts 336.80±15.20mg/l reported
by Ezeribe et al. (2012) but it is in consonance with the findings of Bello et al. (2013). Hardness
is an important parameter in reducing the harmful effect of poisonous elements. The deposition
of calcium and magnesium salts in water increases the hardness of such water hence the
pollution of the waters (Bhatt et al., 1999). The soil composition of the sampling sites and lack of
casting of the wall of open well may have contributed to the high total hardness of the water
sample F and G. Hard water is not useful for domestic as well as agriculture purpose and this is
predominantly caused by calcium and magnesium cations. Also people with kidney diseases
should avoid high content of calcium and magnesium in water.
The nitrate concentration recorded for the water samples ranged between 23.80±1.61mg/l and
17.47±3.58mg/l where samples G and B were found to have the highest and the lowest nitrate
concentrations respectively. According to WHO (2007), the antibacterial properties of nitrate
may play a key role in protecting the gastrointestinal tract against a variety of gastrointestinal
pathogens. However, excessive nitrate concentration in drinking water constitutes a significant
risk factor for bottle-fed babies. This could result in an increase in methemoglobinemia and
possible cyanosis (Greer and Shannon, 2005). Factors such as agricultural activity (excessive
organic and inorganic manure application), wastewater disposal, human and animal excreta,

117
including septic tanks that were situated very close to the open wells may have contributed to the
elevated nitrate levels observed in this study (Bello et al., 2013; Shittu et al., 2008).
Sulfate concentration of the water samples generally ranged from 30.58±2.43mg/l and
25.35±1.16mg/l; the highest sulfate concentration was recorded with sample B and lowest was
recorded with sample D (Table 2). Sulfates are a compound containing sulfur and oxygen ions
and are a part of naturally occurring minerals in some formations of soil and rock that contain
groundwater. The minerals dissolve over a period and are released into groundwater
(Okpokwasili et al., 2013). The sulfate levels of the water samples were below the 200mg/l
recommended value by WHO (2006).

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Table 1: Physicochemical Characteristics of Open Well Water Samples taken at different location in Ilorin
Parameter A B C D E F G H WHO
Temperature(0
C) 27.60±0.51a
27.60±0.18a
27.90±0.29a
28.20±0.44a
28.00±0.42a
27.40±0.33a
28.00±0.16 a
27.50±0.37 a 0-30
pH
6.83±0.07a
476.50±48.72c
6.90±0.07a 7.06±0.14 a
7.22±0.06 a
6.80±0.04 a
6.99±0.12 a
6.84±0.07 a
6.99±0.14 a
6.5-
8.5
Conductivity
(µS/cm) 526.90±53.12b
458.50±60.62c
542.90±52.79b
518.80±51.64b
577.80±41.28a
546.60±45.12b
575.30±61.92a
Turbidity (NTU) 3.21±0.87b
4.10±1.10b
2.69±0.40c
3.87±0.64b
4.44±1.21b
4.53±1.11b
5.88±1.08a
6.31±0.21a 6.0
TS (mg/l) 274.70±31.26b
322.00±48.98a
258.50±28.48b
307.10±31.69b
295.30±17.33b
347.20±20.88a
325.60±32.65a
348.80±41.58a 500
TSS (mg/l) 47.50±1.70b
56.10±4.66a
52.10±4.24a
47.60±3.59b
56.20±2.60a
56.00±8.55a
52.70±2.68a
53.40±5.94a
NS
Values represent the mean and standard error of mean (n=5). Values with the same superscripts across a row are not
significantly different but those with different superscripts are significantly different at p < 0.05.
KEY: TS=Total Solids; TSS=Total Suspended Solids
. A=Airport; B=Asa dam; C = Tanke; D= Agbo Oba; E= Gaa Akanbi; F=Maraba; G=Opo malu; H=Oja Oba.

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Table 2: Physicochemical Characteristics of Open Well Water Samples taken at different sites in Ilorin
Parameter A B C D E F G H WHO
TDS(mg/l) 227.20±31.33b
267.80±46.94a
208.40±31.19b
259.60±33.17a
239.00±19.49b
279.90±21.06a
273.00±30.51a
295.40±37.12a
500
DO (mg/l) 8.88±0.64b
8.55±0.60b
9.69±0.80b
7.04±0.40c
8.03±0.50b
9.07±1.17b
9.81±0.37a
8.27±0.65 b
7.5
BOD
(mg/l)
4.82±0.37 a
4.99±0.58a
5.53±0.43a
4.38±0.28b
5.10±0.82a
6.25±1.31a
5.99±0.58a
5.57±0.71a
10
COD
(mg/l)
8.27±1.20b
9.89±0.78b
9.09±0.65b
8.15±0.32b
9.62±0.37b
8.56±0.81b
12.72±0.39a
10.80±0.80b
<50
Total
Hardness
(mg/l)
290.60±10.78a
287.30±11.46a
278.10±7.14b
292.10±3.29a
281.20±4.08b
294.20±3.81a
291.00±7.11a
293.80±11.63a
500
Nitrate
(mg/l)
18.19±2.87b
17.47±3.58b
17.77±1.91b
22.50±1.97a
21.20±1.65a
22.01±2.34a
23.80±1.61a
21.05±1.99a
50
Sulfate
(mg/l)
28.61±0.96a
30.58±2.43a
28.61±0.62a
25.35±1.16b
28.28±0.43a
29.60±0.61a
28.82±0.70a
29.44±1.57a
500
Values represent the mean and standard error of mean (n=5). Values with the same superscripts across a row are not
significantly different but those with different superscripts are significantly different at p < 0.05.
KEY: TDS=Total Dissolved Solids; DO=Dissolved Oxygen; BOD=Biochemical Oxygen Demand; COD=Chemical
Oxygen Demand. A=Airport; B=Asa dam; C = Tanke; D= Agbo Oba; E= Gaa Akanbi; F=Maraba; G=Opo malu;
H=Oja Oba.

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The results of the bacteriological analyzes of the water samples are presented in Table 3. The
total bacterial count of the water samples within the eight (8) different sampling sites range from
5.60x106
to 5.30×104
cfu/ml. Sample B and E had the highest counts of 2.24×106
and
5.60x106
cfu/ml respectively while sample C and H had the lowest counts of 5.30×104
and
6.90×104
cfu/ml respectively. The highest coliform count of 72 cfu/100ml was recorded from
sample E while sample C had the lowest coliform counts of 25 cfu/100ml. The different strains
of bacteria isolated from water samples from open wells in this study after their DNA sequence
include Enterobacter cloacae strain GGT036, Citrobacter rodentium ICC168, Acinetobacter
baumannii PKAB07, Klebsiella pneumoniae strain PMK1, Kocuria flava strain GN110,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain VRFPA04, Escherichia coli strain ST2747, Shigella sonnei 53G
and Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium strain 08-1736. The occurrence of
these bacterial isolates in water samples from the eight different locations used for this study is
presented in Table 4.
It is established that water supplies contaminated with human and animal feces are capable of
transmitting a large number of infectious diseases (Anyanwu and Okoli, 2012). The
bacteriological analysis results showed that all water samples were not fit for human
consumption (drinking) as they fail to meet WHO (2006) standards. The coliforms, the primary
bacterial indicator for fecal pollution in water were detected in all the water samples. Coliforms
are the most abundant bacteria in water responsible for water-borne diseases such as typhoid,
dysentery, diarrhea and have also been implicated in mortality across the world (WHO, 2000).
The extremely high bacterial load and coliform count of all the open water were far above the
values recommended by the WHO for drinking water; (1×102
cfu/ml) for the total heterotrophic
count and zero coliform count); therefore drinking from any of the open wells used for this study
will lead to serious health conditions. These results comply with other studies across Nigeria
which showed the presence of coliforms in most potable water sources (Aminu and Amadi,
2014; Anyanwu and Okoli, 2012; Odediran and Olajide, 2011; Odeyemi and Agunbiade, 2012).
There were negative correlations between all the physicochemical parameters (except
temperature, total suspended solids and sulfate concentration) and total heterotrophic count of
the water samples (Table 5). All the physicochemical parameters except temperature, turbidity
and nitrate concentration also showed significant negative correlations with total coliform counts
of the water samples. The physicochemical parameters had no significant effect on the total
heterotrophic and total coliform counts of the water sample (p > 0.05) (Table 5).

121
Table 3: Total bacterial count and Total Coliform Count of water samples from open wells
within Ilorin Municipality
Site Total bacterial count (cfu/ml) Total Coliform Count (cfu/100ml)
A 2.09x 106
59
B 2.24x106
35
C 5.30x104
25
D 3.60x105
44
E 5.60x106
72
F 1.04x105
32
G 2.48x105
34
H 6.90x104
54
WHO Guidelines 1.0x102
/100ml 0
KEY: A=Airport; B=Asa dam; C = Tanke; D= Agbo Oba; E= Gaa Akanbi; F=Maraba;
G=Opo malu; H=Oja Oba.
Table 4: Occurrence of bacterial isolates in open wells in Ilorin, North Central, Nigeria.
Bacterial isolates A B C D E F G H
Enterobacter cloacae strain GGT036 + + - - + + - +
Citrobacter rodentium ICC168 + + + - - + - -
Kocuria flava strain GN110 + - - + - - + -
Acinetobacter baumannii PKAB07 - + + + + + - +
Klebsiella pneumonia PMK1 + + + - + - + +
Escherichia coli strain ST2747 + + + + + + + +
Shigella sonnei 53G + - - + + - + +
Salmonella enterica - + + - - + + -
Pseudomonas aeruginosa VRFPA04 - + + + + - + -
KEY: + = Present; - = Absent; A=Airport; B=Asa dam; C = Tanke; D= Agbo Oba; E= Gaa
Akanbi; F=Maraba; G=Opo malu; H=Oja Oba

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Table 5: Correlations between physicochemical quality and bacteriological quality of open wells
within Ilorin municipality.
S/N Physicochemical Parameter Total Heterotrophic Count Total Coliform Count
1 Temperature Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.169
0.689
0.074
0.862
2 pH Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.604
0.113
-0.419
0.301
3 Conductivity Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.250
0.550
-0.002
0.996
4 Turbidity Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.148
0.727
0.154
0.715
5 Total Solids Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.275
0.511
-0.078
0.854
6 Total Suspended Solids
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.307
0.460
-0.080
0.851
7 Total Dissolved Solids
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.312
0.452
-0.053
0.901
8 Dissolved Oxygen
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.293
0.482
-0.052
0.184
9 Biochemical Oxygen Demands
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.373
0.363
-0.431
0.286
10 Chemical Oxygen Demand
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.106
0.802
-0.111
0.730
11 Total Hardness
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.461
0.256
-0.008
0.986
12 Nitrate Concentration
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.187
0.657
0.069
0.871
13 Sulfate concentration
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.051
0.905
-0.192
0.649
4.0 Conclusion and recommendations
The analysis of the water samples from open wells within Ilorin, North Central, Nigeria revealed
that samples from the eight different locations contain one form of contaminant or the other. The
study also revealed high bacterial contaminants in excess of the recommended limit by WHO
which makes the water unsuitable for drinking. Proper treatment or disinfection of the water
sources should be carried out to reduce the level of contaminants; sanitary conditions around the

123
open wells should also be improved to eliminate the possible sources of contamination. Potable
water should be made accessible and affordable to the citizens by the government.
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