SCHOOL COUNSELLING

1. USE OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION IN
SCHOOL SETTING

2. MODELLING
Eggen and Kauchak (2001)
• Modelling is an instructional strategy in which
the teacher demonstrates a new concept or
approach to learning and students learn by
observing.
Haston (2007)
• Whenever a teacher demonstrates a concept
for a student, that teacher is modelling.

3. Biggs and Moore (1993)
• Teachers need to realise that there is no one
way in which students go about learning; that
some ways are more effective than others;
and that, most importantly, there are things
we as teachers can do to optimise the chances
that students will go about learning in the
most desirable ways.

4. THE THEORY OF MODELLING
• Research suggests that modelling is an
effective instructional strategy in allowing
students to observe the teacher’s thought
processes.
• Bandura (1977)
Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to
mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to
inform them what to do.

5. Bandura (1986)
• Modelling engages students and encourages
learning.
• Most human behaviour is learned observationally
through modelling.
• Research has shown that modelling can be used
across disciplines and in all year and ability level
classroom.
• A model can provide examples of what is
expected of the students in terms of work and/or
behaviour. A teacher can model by using visual,
auditory, tactile, and/or kinaesthetic instructional
techniques.

6. TYPES OF MODELLING
• Disposition
• Task and performance
• Metacognitive
• Scaffolding technique
• Student-centred

7. 1)DISPOSITION MODELLING
• Teachers convey personal values or ways of
thinking.
• Teachers can model desired personal
characteristics.
Eurich (1995)
• Important for facilitating the development of
character and community.
Duplass (2006)
• Model strategies needed to succeed.

8. 2)TASK AND PERFORMANCE
MODELLING
• Task modelling occurs when the teacher
demonstrates a task students will be expected to
do on their own.
• This type of modelling would precede activities
such as science experiments, foreign language
communication, physical education tasks, and
solving mathematical equations.
• This strategy is used so that students can first
observe what is expected of them, and so that
they feel more comfortable in engaging in a new
task or activity.

9. 3)METACOGNITIVE MODELLING
• Metacognitive modelling demonstrates how to
think in lessons that focus on interpreting
information and data, analysing statements, and
making conclusions about what has been
learned.
• This type of modelling would be particularly
useful in a maths class when teachers go through
multiple steps to solve a problem.
Duplass (2006)
• This is a thinking-out-loud approach

10. 4) MODELLING AS A SCAFFOLDING
TECHNIQUE
• Teachers first model the task for students, and
then students begin the task and work
through the task at their own pace.
Baldwin et al (2006)
• Teachers can model the task multiple times for
students who have learning disabilities

11. 5)STUDENT-CENTRED MODELLING
• Teachers can often call on students to model
expected behaviours or thought processes.
Haston (2007)
• Teachers engage students who have mastered
specific concepts or learning outcomes and
model the task for their peers.
Duplass (2006)
• Less teacher led

12. ADVANTAGES OF MODELLING
• Modelling can often make the unclear clearer.
• Some activities cannot be adequately expressed in
words.
• Using this type of instruction, teachers engage students
in imitation of particular behaviours that encourage
learning.
• Modelling can promote inclusion.
• Modelling can help teachers measure the difficulty or
work load of their students.
• Metacognitive modelling is particularly useful for exam
groups.
• Stops students wasting time because they “can’t think
of anything.”

13. DISADVANTAGES OF MODELLING
• Possibility to offend students if teachers are
not working with empathy and integrity.
• Students may begin to “expect” models.
• Less able students are more likely to accept
what is being modelled and not challenge it.
• Reduces students own thinking and creativity
skills.
Haston (2007)
• When used inappropriately it can inhibit
learning.

14. SHAPING
• Shaping is used when a student needs to change
a behavior to a more appropriate or new one.
• When using a shaping technique with a student
each approximate desired behavior that is
demonstrated is reinforced, behaviors that are
not an approximation of the desired behavior are
not reinforced.
• Through the use of reinforcing desired behaviors
the student will increase the desired behavior
and eliminate or change the undesirable behavior

15. • Let’s say a teacher is trying to teach Johnny to
speak in front of the whole classroom. Given that
Johnny is a shy kid, he wouldn’t be able to give a
speech right away.
• So, instead of promising Johnny some reward for
giving a speech, rewards should be given to
behaviors that come close.
• Like, giving him a reward when he stands in front
of the class. Next, when he goes in front of the
class and say hello.
• Then, when he can read a passage from a book.
And, finally when he can give a speech.
• In this way, shaping of behavior can be done.

16. CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT
• Contingency management (CM) is a behaviour
modification intervention which reinforces
desired behaviours through incentives.
• Contingency management is based on the
principle that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
• That is, what people do – how they behave – is
related in a predictable way to the consequences
of their behavior

17. • For example, if an action is followed by a
positive consequence (positive for that
person), then the individual is likely to repeat
that action.
• In contrast, if an action is followed by a
negative consequence (negative for that
person), then the individual is unlikely to
repeat the action. Negative consequences
include both no response (e.g., the person’s
action is ignored) and punishing responses.

18. • There are four categories of consequences
(contingencies) that can influence behavior.
• Positive and negative reinforcement increase
the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.
Extinction and punishment decrease that
likelihood.

19. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
Positive reinforcement is a response that follows a
behavior and has the effect of increasing the likelihood
of that behavior occurring again – by providing a
positive experience as a consequence.
Examples:
• Giving a child food or a toy for a job well done
(assuming that the food or toy is desirable in that
context).
• Giving a child praise or a hug for a job well done
(assuming that the praise or hug is desirable in that
context).
• Giving a student a good grade for excellent work
(assuming the student wants to succeed in school).

20. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
• Negative reinforcement is a response that
follows a behavior and has the effect of
increasing the likelihood of that behavior
occurring again – by removing a negative
stimulus.
• Example:
• A student receives help when he requests help
after struggling with a problem.

21. EXTINCTION
• Extinction occurs when a behavior is followed by
no response, which decreases the likelihood of
the behavior occurring again.
Examples:
• John is disruptive in class and is placed in a time-
out room where he cannot be rewarded for
disruption.
• A therapist gives no response to the student’s
errors.
• A mother ignores her child's whining requests for
candy in the supermarket line.

22. PUNISHMENT
• Punishment is a response that follows a
behavior and has the effect of decreasing the
likelihood of that behavior by providing an
undesirable experience as a consequence.
Examples:
• A mother yells at her child for misbehavior.
• A principal expels a student for serious
infractions of school rules.

23. • Behavioral contracting is an intervention used by
schools to help monitor and change student
behavior.
• Using a simple contract, the expectations of an
individual student or class are spelled out in
detail, along with the adult responses to
achievement of those expectations, making it a
useful planning document.
• behavioral contracting can also be implemented
as an alternative to suspension (Brownstein,
2010).
CONTRACTING

24. Components of a behavioral contract.
• The contract is typically a positive-reinforcement
intervention that includes a listing of the specific
student behaviors that are to be increased and
the inappropriate behaviors to be reduced
(Intervention Central, 2011).
• It also includes the reinforcers or actions of the
adults when those behaviors happen. Behavior
contracts often include “Who, What, When, and
How well” components.

25. • The Who specifies who will perform the task
and receive the agreed upon reward.
• The What includes the task that the student
must perform.
• The When emphasizes what time the task or
behavior will be completed.
• Finally the How well aspect of the contract
highlights to what degree, how frequently, or
to what extent the behavior must be
performed (Cooper et al., 2007).

26. BENEFITS OF BEHAVIORAL
CONTRACTING
• a major benefit to using a behavioral contract is
assisting in the process of increasing positive
student behavior, and reducing the use of
suspension in schools.
• When used in the correct manner, behavioral
contracts can improve a child’s behavior issues
and help teachers and administration continue to
monitor that change.
• Another advantage of using a behavioral contract
is that it is an efficient, flexible, and fairly simple
intervention tool.