ANIMALS USED IN EXPERIMENTAL PHARMACOLOGY
BY-
MANSEE ARYA
M. PHARMACY {COLOGY}
In the guidence of
DR. SAUMYA DAS
INTRODUCTION
Guinea pig is a Rodent which are closely related to porcupines and chinchillas.
Average weight is 750 grams.
It's common name is cavy .
They mainly have eleven breeds .
History of Guinea pig
Guinea pigs is not found naturally in the wild. It is a domestic animal, They are closely related to species of cavies, such as Cavy aperea, Cavy fulgida, and Cavy tschudii, which are still found in various regions of South America.
They are bred for meat production in South America for at least 3,000 years. In 16th century they were brought to Europe.
Since 1800s, they are used as experimental animals like in pathology, nutrition, genetics,and toxicology research.
They are used in traditional healing rituals by folk doctors, and mainy Black Guinea pig used to diagnose diseases such as jaundice, rheumatism, arthritis, and typhus.
Uses in research
Guinea pigs have been used in research for over 200 years. But their use has declined sharply in recent decades.
Their gentle temperament, commercial availability, and extensive historical use as a research model make them useful as research subjects.
They were more closely model human vitamin C metabolism and some immunological responses, for example, airway reactivity in asthma.
They are used by the pharmaceutical industry for preclinical testing of cardiac safety of new drugs, and hairless guinea pigs are used for development and testing of topical drug preparations
Availability and Sources
The shorthair albino English or Hartley guinea pig is used commonly in biomedical research, testing, and teaching.
Additional types of guinea pigs used in research include outbred pigmented guinea pigs, and a hairless Hartley guinea pig.
Laboratory Management and Husbandry
Guinea pigs are social animals and as such should be housed in compatible groups whenever possible .
The caging systems used for guinea pigs housed in research facilities include solid-sided, wire-mesh or solid-floor cages stacked vertically on racks, individual micro isolator cages, solid-bottom plastic caging, and solid-bottom plastic caging in a ventilated rack.
Feed is usually provided in a J-type feeder, which hangs inside the cage or is built into the cage door.
With solid-bottom, bedded cages is important to remove soiled, wet bedding and replace it as needed with fresh, and dry bedding.
Diet
Vegetarian diet – mix of veggies, hay, guinea pig-pellets .
Must consume vitamin C (~0.5mg/kg/day)
Young or pregnant pigs: alfalfa pellets and dry alfalfa hay
Adults: Clover and grass hay pellets and low-protein dry clover and grass hays .
Other food sources – Dandelion greens, Romaine or green leaf lettuce ,kale, carrots, apples, pears, turnips, beets, cucumbers
Handling Methods for Guinea pigs
Guinea pigs should be lifted by grasping the trunk with one hand while supporting the rare quarters with the other.
Use of Guinea pig
Introduction to Screening Models Of Anti Cancer Drugs
Need for novel anti cancer drugs, In - vitro methods, In - vivo methods, Advantages and disadvantages
Presented by
T. Niranjan Reddy
Department of Pharmacology
Assignment on Preclinical Screening of ImmunomodulatorsDeepak Kumar
Assignment on Preclinical screening of new substances for the pharmacological activity using in vivo, in vitro, and other possible animal alternative models
Introduction to Screening Models Of Anti Cancer Drugs
Need for novel anti cancer drugs, In - vitro methods, In - vivo methods, Advantages and disadvantages
Presented by
T. Niranjan Reddy
Department of Pharmacology
Assignment on Preclinical Screening of ImmunomodulatorsDeepak Kumar
Assignment on Preclinical screening of new substances for the pharmacological activity using in vivo, in vitro, and other possible animal alternative models
In vivo is the Latin word which means with in the living body.
When effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organism or cells, usually animals including humans and plants.
Animal testing and clinical trials are major elements of in-vivo research.
In vivo testing is often employed over in vitro because it is better suited for observing the overall effects of an experiment on a living subject in drug discovery.
example, verification of efficacy in vivo is crucial, because in vitro assays can sometimes yield misleading results with drug.
Harry Smith found that sterile filtrates of serum from animals infected with Bacillus anthracis were lethal for other animals, whereas extracts of culture fluid from the same organism grown in vitro were not.
In microbiology Once cells are disrupted and individual parts are tested or analyzed, this is known as in vitro.
In vitro studies within the glass, i.e., in a laboratory environment using test tubes, petri dishes, etc. Examples of investigations in vivo include: the pathogenesis of disease.
In vitro toxicology:-
The bridge exists between new drug discovery and drug development.-
Provide information on mechanism of action of a drug
Provides an early indication of the potential for some kinds of toxic effects, allowing a decision to terminate or to proceed further.
In vitro methods are widely used for:-
Screening and ranking chemicals
Get a platform for animal studies for physiological actions
Studying cell, tissue, or target specific effects
Improve subsequent study design
Advantages and Disadvantages:-
Faster than in vivo studies
Less expensive to run
Less predictive of toxicity in intact organisms
In vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) refers to the qualitative or quantitative transposition of experimental results or observations made in vitro to predict phenomena in vivo, biological organisms.
The problem of transposing in vitro results is particularly acute in areas such as toxicology where animal experiments are being phased out and are increasingly being replaced by alternative tests.
Results obtained from in vitro experiments cannot often be directly applied to predict biological responses of organisms to chemical exposure in vivo.
Therefore, it is extremely important to build a consistent and reliable in vitro to in vivo extrapolation method.
Two solutions are now commonly accepted:
Increasing the complexity of in vitro systems where multiple cells can interact with each other in order recapitulate cell-cell interactions present in tissues (as in "human on chip" systems).
Using mathematical modeling to numerically simulate the behavior of a complex system, whereby in vitro data provides the parameter values for developing a model.
The two approaches can be applied simultaneously allowing in vitro systems to provide adequate data for the development of mathematical models. To comply with push for the development of alternative testing methods.
Introduction to Screening Models of Anti-Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis, Screening models, In vitro models, In vivo models
Presented by
SHAIK FIRDOUS BANU
Department of Pharmacology
Preclinical Screening of Antiasthmatic DrugsShubham Kolge
Bronchial asthma is characterized by both bronchoconstriction and airway inflammation which leads to bronchial hyperresponsiveness to various stimuli. Different mediators are implicated in asthma. As the precise etiology is not known and multiple biochemical processes are triggered by different causative factors, it is difficult to have a single drug which can effectively and simultaneously act upon different mediators. This led to an intense search for potent and safe antiasthmatic drugs. This presentation intends to compile different screening methods for the evaluation of new candidate drugs with potential for the treatment of asthma. These include in vitro, in vivo, receptor binding and enzymatic methods.
In vivo is the Latin word which means with in the living body.
When effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organism or cells, usually animals including humans and plants.
Animal testing and clinical trials are major elements of in-vivo research.
In vivo testing is often employed over in vitro because it is better suited for observing the overall effects of an experiment on a living subject in drug discovery.
example, verification of efficacy in vivo is crucial, because in vitro assays can sometimes yield misleading results with drug.
Harry Smith found that sterile filtrates of serum from animals infected with Bacillus anthracis were lethal for other animals, whereas extracts of culture fluid from the same organism grown in vitro were not.
In microbiology Once cells are disrupted and individual parts are tested or analyzed, this is known as in vitro.
In vitro studies within the glass, i.e., in a laboratory environment using test tubes, petri dishes, etc. Examples of investigations in vivo include: the pathogenesis of disease.
In vitro toxicology:-
The bridge exists between new drug discovery and drug development.-
Provide information on mechanism of action of a drug
Provides an early indication of the potential for some kinds of toxic effects, allowing a decision to terminate or to proceed further.
In vitro methods are widely used for:-
Screening and ranking chemicals
Get a platform for animal studies for physiological actions
Studying cell, tissue, or target specific effects
Improve subsequent study design
Advantages and Disadvantages:-
Faster than in vivo studies
Less expensive to run
Less predictive of toxicity in intact organisms
In vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) refers to the qualitative or quantitative transposition of experimental results or observations made in vitro to predict phenomena in vivo, biological organisms.
The problem of transposing in vitro results is particularly acute in areas such as toxicology where animal experiments are being phased out and are increasingly being replaced by alternative tests.
Results obtained from in vitro experiments cannot often be directly applied to predict biological responses of organisms to chemical exposure in vivo.
Therefore, it is extremely important to build a consistent and reliable in vitro to in vivo extrapolation method.
Two solutions are now commonly accepted:
Increasing the complexity of in vitro systems where multiple cells can interact with each other in order recapitulate cell-cell interactions present in tissues (as in "human on chip" systems).
Using mathematical modeling to numerically simulate the behavior of a complex system, whereby in vitro data provides the parameter values for developing a model.
The two approaches can be applied simultaneously allowing in vitro systems to provide adequate data for the development of mathematical models. To comply with push for the development of alternative testing methods.
Introduction to Screening Models of Anti-Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis, Screening models, In vitro models, In vivo models
Presented by
SHAIK FIRDOUS BANU
Department of Pharmacology
Preclinical Screening of Antiasthmatic DrugsShubham Kolge
Bronchial asthma is characterized by both bronchoconstriction and airway inflammation which leads to bronchial hyperresponsiveness to various stimuli. Different mediators are implicated in asthma. As the precise etiology is not known and multiple biochemical processes are triggered by different causative factors, it is difficult to have a single drug which can effectively and simultaneously act upon different mediators. This led to an intense search for potent and safe antiasthmatic drugs. This presentation intends to compile different screening methods for the evaluation of new candidate drugs with potential for the treatment of asthma. These include in vitro, in vivo, receptor binding and enzymatic methods.
Opportunities for feeding forages to pigs in UgandaILRI
Poster by Brigitte L. Maass, Jolly M. Kabirizi, Danilo Pezo, Natalie Carter, Emily Ouma, Emmanuel Zziwa and Wanjiku L. Chiuri. 2014. Opportunities for feeding forages to pigs in Uganda. Poster presented at Tropentage 2014, Prague, Czech Republic, 17-19 September 2014.
Strategies Novartis can use to GROW from a Billion Dollar Company to a Trillion Dollar Company like Alphabet Inc
Novartis is a leading healthcare company which is situated in Switzerland and uses digital technologies and innovative science to come up with transformative ways of treatment in areas of great medicinal needs. This article explains what Novartis strategies and what they should employ so that they can rise from a billion dollar company to a trillion dollar company like the Google Alphabet Inc.
Novartis was formed in March 1996 by the merging of pharmaceutical and agrochemical divisions of Ciba-Geigy and Sandoz companies. Thanks to the merging of the two companies, Novartis is one of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world. Novartis is one of the largest companies which achieved a great milestone within a few decades. Novartis as a whole is divided into three major divisions: Sandoz (generics), Innovative Medicines and Alcon (eyecare). Novartis is also involved in collaborative research projects that are publicly funded.
Below are some of Novartis best selling drugs and their revenue
1.Cosenty – This is the top selling drug with a revenue of 4.788 billion dollars
2.Enfresto – This has a revenue of 4.644 billions dollars
3.Promacta – This has a revenue 0f 2.088 billion dollars
Medicine manufactured by Novartis and their uses
Medicine Medicine use
Cosentyx Used to treat psoriatic arthritis
Entresto Used to treat heart failure
Lucentis Used to block abnormal vessel growth in the back of the eye
Tasigna Used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia which has the Philadelphia chromosome
Jakavi Used to treat myelofibrosis, polycythemia vera and graft-versus-host disease
Promacta Used to treat patients with abnormal low platelet count
Sandostatin Used to treat patients with tumor experiencing symptoms like flushing and diarrhea
Xolair Used to treat moderate and severe asthma
Gilenya Used to treat multiple sclerosis
How Novartis became one of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world
1.Market control through partnership
Geigy, Sandoz and Ciba combined their power so that they can compete with strong foreign firms and formed a cartel called the Basal Syndicate or Basal IG. Basal IG secured most of the manufacturing facilities all over the US and across Europe. It later joined with IG Farben and other chemical companies to form a big cartel called the Quadrapartite Cartel which dominated all of the European market and enjoyed the profits made from the joint manufacturing.
2.Growth acceleration through mergers
Since competition was very rampant in the pharmaceutical industry, Ciba and Geigy decided to merge with Sandoz AG to form Novartis. With this merge, Novartis became one of the growing giants in the pharmaceutical industry. This made Novartis gain a lot of fame and build a strong reputation over other companies. Novartis majored on agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries which made it easy to focus on a specific mar
The byproduct of sericulture in different industries.pptxShobhayan Kirtania
This ppt was made to bring to light the different products of sericulture other than that in the textile industry. It describes how the byproducts like silkworm feces, pupa, larvae, eggs, etc. are used in production processes of different industries like medicine, cosmetics, fertilizer, feed, etc.
Selection of an animal model is one of the most important steps in any of the experimental pharmacological study.
Animal model preferred for the study must be producing similar disease profile as in the human.
Similar to Experimental animal Guinea pigs.pptx (20)
FAIRSpectra - Towards a common data file format for SIMS imagesAlex Henderson
Presentation from the 101st IUVSTA Workshop on High performance SIMS instrumentation and machine learning / artificial intelligence methods for complex data.
This presentation describes the issues relating to storing and sharing data from Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry experiments, and some potential solutions.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Nutrition is the science that deals with the study of nutrients and their role in maintaining human health and well-being. It encompasses the various processes involved in the intake, absorption, and utilization of essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water, by the human body.
1. Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology
(Pharmacy Institute), Greater Noida
BY-
MANSEE ARYA
M. PHARMACY {COLOGY}
In the guidence of
DR. SAUMYA DAS
ANIMALS USED IN EXPERIMENTAL PHARMACOLOGY
USE OF GUINEA PIGS
3. CONTENT
❖ INTRODUCTION
❖ TAXONOMY
❖ HISTORY OF GUINEA PIGS
❖ USES IN RESEARCH
❖ AVAILABILITY OF SOURCES
❖ LABORATORY MANAGEMENT AND
HUSBANDRY
❖ DIET
❖ HANDLING METHOD OF GUINEA PIGS
❖ DISEASES OF GUINEA PIGS
❖ ANAESTHETIC CONDITION OF GUINEA
PIGS
4. INTRODUCTION
❖ Guinea pig is a Rodent which are closely related to porcupines
and chinchillas.
❖ Average weight is 750 grams.
❖ It's common name is cavy .
❖ They mainly have eleven breeds .
5. Taxonomy
❖ KINGDOM - Animalia
❖ PHYLUM - Chordata
❖ CLASS - Mammalia
❖ ORDER - Rodentia
❖ FAMILY - Cavidae
❖ GENUS - Cavia
❖ SPECIES - C.parcellus
6. History of Guinea pig
❖ Guinea pigs is not found naturally in the wild. It is a domestic
animal, They are closely related to species of cavies, such as Cavy
aperea, Cavy fulgida, and Cavy tschudii, which are still found in
various regions of South America.
❖ They are bred for meat production in South America for at least
3,000 years. In 16th century they were brought to Europe.
❖ Since 1800s, they are used as experimental animals like in
pathology, nutrition, genetics,and toxicology research.
❖ They are used in traditional healing rituals by folk doctors, and
mainy Black Guinea pig used to diagnose diseases such as
jaundice, rheumatism, arthritis, and typhus.
7. Uses in Research
❖ Guinea pigs have been used in research for over 200
years. But their use has declined sharply in recent decades.
❖ Their gentle temperament, commercial availability, and
extensive historical use as a research model make them
useful as research subjects.
❖ They were more closely model human vitamin C
metabolism and some immunological responses, for
example, airway reactivity in asthma.
❖ They are used by the pharmaceutical industry for preclinical
testing of cardiac safety of new drugs, and hairless guinea
pigs are used for development and testing of topical drug
preparations
8. Availability and Sources
❖ The shorthair albino English or Hartley guinea pig is used commonly in
biomedical research, testing, and teaching.
❖ Additional types of guinea pigs used in research include outbred pigmented
guinea pigs, and a hairless Hartley guinea pig.
9. Laboratory Management and Husbandry
❖ Guinea pigs are social animals and as such should be housed in compatible
groups whenever possible .
❖ The caging systems used for guinea pigs housed in research facilities include
solid-sided, wire-mesh or solid-floor cages stacked vertically on racks,
individual microisolator cages, solid-bottom plastic caging, and solid-bottom
plastic caging in a ventilated rack.
❖ Feed is usually provided in a J-type feeder, which hangs inside the cage or is
built into the cage door.
❖ With solid-bottom, bedded cages is important to remove soiled, wet bedding
and replace it as needed with fresh, and dry bedding.
10. Diet
❖ Vegetarian diet – mix of veggies, hay, guinea pig-pellets .
❖ Must consume vitamin C (~0.5mg/kg/day)
❖ Young or pregnant pigs: alfalfa pellets and dry alfalfa hay
❖ Adults: Clover and grass hay pellets and low-protein dry clover and grass
hays .
❖ Other food sources – Dandelion greens, Romaine or green leaf lettuce ,kale,
carrots, apples, pears, turnips, beets, cucumbers
11. Handling Methods for Guinea pigs
❖ Guinea pigs should be lifted by grasping the trunk with one hand
while supporting the rare querters with the other.
❖ Support is particularly important with adults and pregnant animals.
Injured laungs may result if an animal is garsped too firmly over its
back.
❖ Wrapping the guinea pig in a towel is also a handling method.
14. Anesthetic considerations for Guinea pigs
❖ Guinea Pigs are difficult to intubate because of
pharyngeal anatomy.
❖ Soft palate is continuous with the base of the
tongue which is why the glottis cannot be
visualized.
❖ Large cecum which contains 65% of the
gastrointestinal contents.
15. REFERENCES
❖ Kawamoto, K, et al. (2003) Math1 Gene Transfer Generates New Cochlear Hair
Cells in Mature Guinea Pigs In Vivo, J Neurosci 23(11):4395-4400
❖ Noguchi , H. (1919) The Journal of Experimental Medicine, 30, 1-8, The
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research New York
❖ Gmelig-Nijboer, C. A. (1977). Conrad Gessner's "Historia Animalum": An
Inventory of Renaissance Zoology. Krips Repro B.V. pp. 69–70.
