In ancient Greece, battles were fought between tightly packed infantry formations called phalanxes, which advanced behind overlapping shields. Art from this period often depicted idealized single combat between warriors. With the Persian Wars, Greek art started showing equal opponents and avoided dehumanizing enemies. In the Roman period, the military adopted new strategies using specialized units. Art shifted to showing realistic battle scenes within the context of Rome's territorial expansion. Enemies were distinguished by appearance and depicted without dignity, in utter humiliation to assert Roman superiority.
2. Greek Period
• Battles were between compact
phalanxes
–Embodied civic ideal – equality
among citizens
• Made up of hoplites – foot soldiers
• Advanced in close formation,
protected by overlapping bronze
shields
4. Greek Period
• Most archaic art shows single combat
–Reality of warfare – once phalanxes
clash, phalanx breaks apart
–Soldiers – very isolated during battle,
especially because of Greek helmets
–Face-to-face fighting becomes ideal of
valor – much like interaction in Greek
politics, rituals, sports
8. Greek Period
• Until Persian War – Greece did not
have foreign enemies
–Wars among city-states savage, but
they were all Greeks
–Fought with shared rules, practices
and rituals of war
–Representation in art shows equal
opponents, never de-humanized
9. Roman Period
• Development in military strategy
–Generals used units of army like
chess-pieces in a strategic plan - all
parts had different tasks and
movements, and were coordinated in
a complex collective enterprise
–Roman units attack in closed
formation – art shows realistic battle
scenes
10. Roman Period
• Experience of autonomous fighting
and individual glory reduced
• Much like Roman world –
integration of autonomous cities
and autonomous citizens into large
territorial states ruled by distant
kings
16. Battle between Roman and Germanic armies,
Relief from marble sarcophagus, 180 – 190 CE
17. Roman Period
• Rome was seen as center of civilized
world between two poles of barbarism
–northern/western barbarians of
Europe were stereotyped as rough
and without civilization
–Eastern barbarians of Asia and
Middle East were effeminized by
luxury and full of deceit
18. Roman Period
• In art, enemies were distinguished by
their ethnic physiognomies and their
equipment
• Depicted without dignity or status –
things which defined Roman superiority
• Enemies shown in utter humiliation –
distorted by pain and despair, kneeling
in servile attitudes
20. Marcus Aurelius
hands down justice
to barbarians,
identifiable by
belted tunics and
long beards, one of
eight panels later
incorporated into
the Arch of
Constantine
21. Marcus Aurelius
surveys his
victory, as
barbarians beg for
mercy at his feet,
one of eight
panals later
incorporated into
the Arch of
Constantine
