1. Montessori education 1
Montessori education
Montessori education is an educational approach
developed by Italian physician and educator Maria
Montessori (1870–1952). Montessori education is
practiced in an estimated 20,000 schools worldwide,
serving children from birth to eighteen years old.[1]
Overview
Montessori education is characterized by an emphasis
on independence, freedom within limits, and respect for
a child’s natural psychological development. Although
a range of practices exists under the name
"Montessori", the Association Montessori Children working on the phonogram moveable alphabet
Internationale (AMI) and the American Montessori
Society (AMS) cite these elements as essential:[2] [3]
• mixed age classrooms, with classrooms for children aged 2½ or 3 to 6 years old by far the most common
• student choice of activity from within a prescribed range of options
• uninterrupted blocks of work time
• a constructivist or "discovery" model, where students learn concepts from working with materials, rather than
by direct instruction
• specialized educational materials developed by Montessori and her collaborators
In addition, many Montessori schools design their programs with reference to Montessori’s model of human
development from her published works, and use pedagogy, lessons, and materials introduced in teacher training
derived from courses presented by Montessori during her lifetime.
History
Montessori began to develop her philosophy and methods in 1897, attending courses in pedagogy at the University
of Rome and reading the educational theory of the previous two hundred years.[4] In 1907, she opened her first
classroom, the Casa dei Bambini, or Children’s House, in a tenement building in Rome.[5] From the beginning,
Montessori based her work on her observations of children and experimentation with the environment, materials, and
lessons available to them. She frequently referred to her work as "scientific pedagogy".
Montessori education spread to the United States in 1911 and became widely known in education and popular
publications. However, conflict between Montessori and the American educational establishment, and especially the
publication in 1914 of a critical booklet, The Montessori System Examined by influential education teacher William
Heard Kilpatrick, limited the spread of her ideas, and they languished after 1914.[6] Montessori education returned to
the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there.
Montessori continued to extend her work during her lifetime, developing a comprehensive model of psychological
development from birth to age 24, as well as educational approaches for children ages 0–3, 3–6, and 6–12. She
wrote and lectured about ages 12 to 18 and beyond, but these programs were not developed during her lifetime. The
term "Montessori" is in the public domain, so anyone can use the term with or without reference to her work.

2. Montessori education 2
Montessori education theory
Self-construction, liberty, and spontaneous activity
Montessori education is fundamentally a model of human development, and an educational approach based on that
model. The model has two basic elements. First, children and developing adults engage in psychological
self-construction by means of interaction with their environments. Second, children, especially under the age of six,
have an innate path of psychological development. Based on her observations, Montessori believed that children at
liberty to choose and act freely within an environment prepared according to her model would act spontaneously for
optimal development.
Human tendencies
Montessori saw universal, innate characteristics in human psychology which her son and collaborator Mario
Montessori identified as "human tendencies" in 1957. There is some debate about the exact list, but the following are
clearly identified:[7]
• self-preservation
• orientation to the environment
• order
• exploration
• communication
• work, also described as "purposeful activity"
• manipulation of the environment
• exactness
• repetition
• abstraction
• self-perfection
• the "mathematical mind"
In the Montessori approach, these human tendencies are seen as driving behavior in every stage of development, and
education should respond to and facilitate their expression.
Prepared environment
Montessori's education method called for free activity within a "prepared environment", meaning an educational
environment tailored to basic human characteristics and to the specific characteristics of children at different ages.
The function of the environment is to allow the child to develop independence in all areas according to his or her
inner psychological directives. In addition to offering access to the Montessori materials appropriate to the age of the
children, the environment should exhibit the following characteristics:[8]
• construction in proportion to the child and his/her needs
• beauty and harmony, cleanliness of environment
• order
• an arrangement that facilitates movement and activity
• limitation of materials, so that only material that supports the child's development is included

3. Montessori education 3
Planes of development
Montessori observed four distinct periods, or "planes", in human development, extending from birth to six years,
from six to twelve, from twelve to eighteen, and from eighteen to twenty-four. She saw different characteristics,
learning modes, and developmental imperatives active in each of these planes, and called for educational approaches
specific to each period.[9] [10]
First plane
The first plane extends from birth to around six years of age. During this period, Montessori observed that the child
undergoes striking physical and psychological development. The first plane child is seen as a concrete, sensorial
explorer and learner engaged in the developmental work of psychological self-construction and building functional
independence. Montessori introduced several concepts to explain this work, including the absorbent mind, sensitive
periods, and normalization.
Absorbent mind: Montessori described the young child's behavior of effortlessly assimilating the sensorial stimuli
of his or her environment, including information from the senses, language, culture, and the development of concepts
with the term "absorbent mind". She believed that this is a power unique to the first plane, and that it fades as the
child approached age six.[11]
Sensitive periods: Montessori also observed periods of special sensitivity to particular stimuli during this time
which she called the "sensitive periods". In Montessori education, the classroom environment responds to these
periods by making appropriate materials and activities available while the periods are active in the young child. She
identified the following periods and their durations:[12]
• acquisition of language—from birth to around six years old
• order—from around one to three years old
• sensory refinement—from birth to around four years old
• interest in small objects—from around 18 months to three years old
• social behavior—from around two and a half to four years old
Normalization: Finally, Montessori observed in children from three to six years old a psychological state she termed
"normalization". Normalization arises from concentration and focus on activity which serves the child’s
developmental needs, and is characterized by the ability to concentrate as well as "spontaneous discipline,
continuous and happy work, social sentiments of help and sympathy for others."[13]
Second plane
The second plane of development extends from around six to twelve years old. During this period, Montessori
observed physical and psychological changes in children, and developed a classroom environment, lessons, and
materials, to respond to these new characteristics. Physically, she observed the loss of baby teeth and the lengthening
of the legs and torso at the beginning of the plane, and a period of uniform growth following. Psychologically, she
observed the "herd instinct", or the tendency to work and socialize in groups, as well as the powers of reason and
imagination. Developmentally, she believed the work of the second plane child is the formation of intellectual
independence, of moral sense, and of social organization. [14]
Third plane
The third plane of development extends from around twelve to around eighteen years of age, encompassing the
period of adolescence. Montessori characterized the third plane by the physical changes of puberty and adolescence,
but also psychological changes. She emphasized the psychological instability and difficulties in concentration of this
age, as well as the creative tendencies and the development of "a sense of justice and a sense of personal dignity."
She used the term "valorization" to describe the adolescents' drive for an externally derived evaluation of their worth.
Developmentally, Montessori believed that the work of the third plane child is the construction of the adult self in

4. Montessori education 4
society.[15]
Fourth plane
The fourth plane of development extends from around eighteen years to around twenty-four years old. Montessori
wrote comparatively little about this period and did not develop an educational program for the age. She envisioned
young adults prepared by their experiences in Montessori education at the lower levels ready to fully embrace the
study of culture and the sciences in order to influence and lead civilization. She believed that economic
independence in the form of work for money was critical for this age, and felt that an arbitrary limit to the number of
years in university level study was unnecessary, as the study of culture could go on throughout a person's life.[16]
Education and peace
As Montessori developed her theory and practice, she came to believe that education had a role to play in the
development of world peace.[17] She felt that children allowed to develop according to their inner laws of
development would give rise to a more peaceful and enduring civilization. From the 1930s to the end of her life, she
gave a number of lectures and addresses on the subject, saying in 1936,
Preventing conflicts is the work of politics; establishing peace is the work of education.[18]
She received a total of 6 nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize among three years: 1949, 1950, and 1951.[19] [20]
Montessori education practices
Ages birth to three
Infant and Toddler Programs: Montessori classrooms for children under three fall into several categories, with a
number of terms being used. A "Nido", Italian for "nest", serves a small number of children from around two months
to around fourteen months, or when the child is confidently walking. A "Young Child Community" serves a larger
number of children from around one year to two-and-a-half or three years old. Both environments emphasize
materials and activities scaled to the children's size and abilities, opportunities to develop movement, and activities
to develop independence. Development of independence in toileting is typically emphasized as well. Some schools
also offer "Parent-Infant" classes, in which parents participate with their very young children.[21]
Preschool and kindergarten Montessori classrooms for children from two-and-a-half or three to six years old are
often called Children’s Houses, after Montessori’s first school, the Casa dei Bambini in Rome in 1906. This level is
also called "Primary". A typical classroom serves 20 to 30 children in mixed-age groups, staffed by one trained
teacher and an assistant. Classrooms are usually outfitted with child-sized tables and chairs arranged singly or in
small clusters, with classroom materials on child-height shelves throughout the room. Activities are for the most part
initially presented by the teacher, after which they may be chosen more or less freely by the children as interest
dictates. Classroom materials usually include activities for engaging in practical skills such as pouring and spooning,
materials for the development of the senses, math materials, language materials, music and art materials, and
more.[22]
Ages six to twelve
Elementary Classrooms: Classrooms for this age are usually referred to as "Elementary", and can range in size
from very small up to 30 or more children, typically staffed by a trained teacher and one or more assistants. Classes
usually serve mixed-age six- to nine-year old and nine- to twelve-year old groupings, although six- to twelve-year
old groups are also used. Lessons are typically presented to small groups of children, who are then free to follow up
with independent work of their own as interest and personal responsibility dictate. The scope of lessons and work in
the Elementary classroom is quite broad. Montessori used the term "cosmic education" to indicate both the universal
scope of lessons to be presented, and the idea that education in the second plane should help the child realize the

5. Montessori education 5
human role in the interdependent functioning of the universe. Classroom materials and lessons include work in
language, mathematics, history, the sciences, the arts, and much more. Student directed explorations of resources
outside the classroom, known as "going out" in Montessori, are an integral element of the Elementary work.[23]
Ages twelve to eighteen
Middle and High School: Montessori education for this level is less well-developed than programs for younger
children. Montessori did not establish a teacher training program or a detailed plan of education for adolescents
during her lifetime. However, a number of schools have extended their programs for younger children to the middle
school and high school levels. In addition, several Montessori organizations have developed teacher training or
orientation courses and a loose consensus on the plan of study is emerging. Montessori wrote that,
The essential reform of our plan from this point of view may be defined as follows: during the difficult
time of adolescence it is helpful to leave the accustomed environment of the family in town and to go to
quiet surroundings in the country, close to nature.[24]
Although a number of Montessori middle schools have incorporated some form of land-based education, only one
(the Hershey Montessori School in Concord Township, Ohio) operates a full boarding program.
Montessori authenticity
Montessori’s ideas were well received internationally, and Montessori societies to promote her work were formed in
many countries. However, Montessori maintained tight control over the use of her name and insisted that only she
was able to give authentic training in her methods.[25] In 1929, she founded the Association Montessori
Internationale (AMI), "to maintain the integrity of her life’s work, and to ensure that it would be perpetuated after her
death." [26] AMI continues to train teachers using materials and presentations developed by Montessori and her son,
Mario Montessori.
Montessori societies were established in the United States and in several European countries during Montessori's
lifetime, but teacher training and authenticity remained under Montessori's control. [27] In 1960, after a dispute with
AMI, the American Montessori Society (AMS) was formed. According to AMS, "The two organizations have since
reconciled their differences, and now enjoy a collegial relationship of mutual support and respect."[28] AMS trains
teachers and states on its website that "AMS is the largest Montessori organization in the world." [29] Other smaller
organizations offer training as well, and there is an ongoing controversy in the Montessori world about what
constitutes authentic Montessori.
In 1967, the US Patent Trademark Trial and Appeal Board ruled that "the term 'Montessori' has a generic and/or
descriptive significance."[30] Therefore, in the United States and elsewhere, the term can be used freely without
giving any guarantee of how closely, if at all, a program applies Montessori's work.
References
[1] "Frequently Asked Questions: How Many Montessori Schools Are There?" (http:/ / www. montessori-namta. org/ component/
option,com_quickfaq/ Itemid,90/ cid,1/ id,8/ view,items/ ). North American Montessori Teachers Association. . Retrieved 4/22/11.
[2] "AMI School Standards" (http:/ / amiusa. org/ ami-schools/ ami-school-standards). Association Montessori Internationale-USA (AMI-USA). .
Retrieved 4/22/2011.
[3] "Introduction to Montessori" (http:/ / www. amshq. org/ Montessori Education/ Introduction to Montessori. aspx). American Montessori
Society (AMS). .
[4] Kramer, Rita (1976). Maria Montessori. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 60. ISBN 0-201-09227-1.
[5] Kramer, 112
[6] Kramer, ch. 15
[7] Montessori, Mario (1966). The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education (http:/ / amiusa. org/ shop/
the-human-tendencies-and-montessori-education). Amsterdam: Association Montessori Internationale. .
[8] Standing, E. M. (1957). Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work. New York: Plume. pp. 263–280.
[9] Montessori, Maria (1969). "The Four Planes of Development". AMI Communications (2/3): 4–10.

6. Montessori education 6
[10] Grazzini, Camillo (Jan/Feb 1988). "The Four Planes of Development: A Contstructive Rhythm of Life". Montessori Today 1 (1): 7–8.
[11] Montessori, Maria (1967). The Absorbent Mind. New York: Delta. ISBN 0-440-55056-4.
[12] Standing, pp. 118-140
[13] Montessori, 1967, p. 207
[14] Montessori, Maria (1994). From Childhood to Adolescence. Oxford, England: ABC-Clio. pp. 7–16. ISBN 1-85109-185-8.
[15] Montessori, 1994, pp. 59-81
[16] Montessori, 1994, pp. 82-93
[17] Standing, p. 80
[18] Montessori, Maria (1992). Education and Peace. Oxford: ANC-Clio. pp. 24. ISBN 1-85109-168-8.
[19] "Nomination Database - Peace" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ peace/ nomination/ nomination. php?string=Montessori&
action=simplesearch& submit. x=10& submit. y=4& submit=submit). Nobelprize.org. . Retrieved 2011-06-04.
[20] Kramer, p. 360
[21] "The Montessori Infant-Toddler Program" (http:/ / www. montessori-namta. org/ Index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=85).
North American Montessori Teachers Association. . Retrieved 4/25/11.
[22] "The Montessori Preschool Program" (http:/ / www. montessori-namta. org/ Index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=86). North
American Montessori Teachers Association. . Retrieved 4/25/11.
[23] "The Montessori Elementary Program" (http:/ / www. montessori-namta. org/ Index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=87).
North American Montessori Teachers Association. . Retrieved 4/25/11.
[24] Montessori, 1989, p. 67
[25] Kramer, 236
[26] "Association Montessori Internationale" (http:/ / www. montessori-ami. org/ ). . Retrieved 4/25/11.
[27] Kramer
[28] "AMS and the Montessori Movement" (http:/ / www. amshq. org/ Montessori Education/ History of Montessori Education/ AMS and the
Montessori Movement. aspx). . Retrieved 4/28/11.
[29] "AMS and the Montessori Movement" (http:/ / www. amshq. org/ Montessori Education/ History of Montessori Education/ AMS and the
Montessori Movement. aspx). . Retrieved 4/25/11.
[30] American Montessori Society, Inc. v. Association Montessori Internationale, 155 U.S.P.Q. 591, 592 (1967)
External links
• Association Montessori Internationale (http://www.montessori-ami.org/)
• Association Montessori Internationale-USA (http://www.amiusa.org/)
• American Montessori Society (http://www.amshq.org/)
• North American Montessori Teachers Association (http://www.montessori-namta.org/)
• The Montessori Foundation (http://www.montessori.org/)
• International Montessori Index (http://www.montessori.edu/)
• Maria Montessori (http://www.mariamontessori.com/)
• Montessori Australia (http://www.montessori.org.au/)

7. Article Sources and Contributors 7
Article Sources and Contributors
Montessori education Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=434485086 Contributors: 1qase4rfgy7, Abune, AgentPeppermint, Akheloios, AlabamaFan2themax, Alan Liefting,
Alba, Alcourt, Allen3, Altenmann, Alx 91, Amalas, Amire80, AnarchyElmo, Angela, Angr, Anthony vipond, Anthopos, Antonrojo, Aobrien127, Apotheosis247, Arbust91, Arienh4, Arnoutf,
Axelgoud, Banksia, Bearcat, Beetstra, Beland, Ben Ben, Biancasimone, Bjb29407, Blima3000, Bluerasberry, Bob Burkhardt, Bookgrrl, Bradeos Graphon, BrainMarble, Brainslug, Brandon5485,
Brewcrewer, Brianga, Brooksgerber, Broquaint, Bumpish, Buster7, C0r, CALR, CIreland, Cacophony, Cameronaconquer, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cantus, Caracaskid, Carlsmith,
Casadeibambini, Cedric du Zob, Chameleon, Charleskenyon, Chlemo123, ChronoSphere, CliffC, Contrived, Corazon, CorvallisMontessoriSchool, Crystalfairie, Cuchullain, Cymru.lass, Czaja36,
DJIndica, Dabomb87, Daddy.twins, Dah31, Daniel Lee, Editor, Daniel horner, Davandron, Dave Ayer, Daverodgers, DavidLevinson, De728631, DeadEyeArrow, Deltabeignet, Demi,
Dennis.schapiro, DerHexer, Destynova, DeweyQ, Dicklyon, DocWatson42, DosMaridos, Download, Dwroblewski, Dylan Lake, Dysprosia, EJF, Ecjl, Edcolins, EddieVanZant, Eliyahu S,
Ellywa, Emurphy42, Enauspeaker, Enquire, Epbr123, Equazcion, Erianna, Evaflood, Everyking, Evil saltine, Exeunt, Fantastic fred, Fer(di)nand(o) Sant, Forbsey, Frecklefaerie, Freedomwarrior,
Freefry, Freek Verkerk, FreplySpang, Gabbe, Gamegrrrl, Ganeshman shrestha, Gino.bdmg, Globeliner, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, Grumpyyoungman01, Guerrini8, GunnarRene, Gurch,
Gustavolau, Gyrofrog, Hadal, HalfShadow, Harvester, Havis1, Helene123, Hgilbert, Hooriaj, Hu, Hypotaxis, Ibyrnison, Icydid, Igni, Igoldste, IlPisano, Immunize, Internationalmontessorian,
Ipvirus, Iridescent, J.B., J.delanoy, J04n, Jacobolus, Jameshfisher, Jannetta, Javierito92, JayFout, Jchabria, Jerzy, Jimp, Jimwitz, Jmajeremy, John, John Darrow, Johnleemk, Jon186, Jonathan.s.kt,
Jpgordon, Jshadias, JureLc, Justius, Jwoodger, KFP, Kbailey1, Kbark, Keenman76, Kelisi, Kelson, Ketiltrout, Khalid hassani, Khazar, Kicking222, Kilgore76, Kimberly Ashton, Koavf,
Krisztinaandre, Ksawatzky, Ksd5, Kusyadi, Kyng, Landon1980, Leeborkman, Leilaj, Leliot, Leszek Jańczuk, Lexn, Linkboyz, LittleOldMe, Lquilter, Lshiller, Lysa622003, Lyso, MER-C,
MSerje, Mac Davis, Magister Mathematicae, Makawity, Masreedhar, Master Scott Hall, Matt r kelly, MattThePuppetGuy, MatthewDBA, Maunus, Mav, Maximdim, Merphant, Merryjman,
Metlin, Mhazard9, Mhellberg, Michael Hardy, Mike.lifeguard, Monica Van Aken, Montessad72, Montessori Education, MontessoriHouse, MontessoriKyle, Mouse Nightshirt, MozzyX, MrFish,
Mullon, Mwbusa, MyNameIsNeo, Myleslong, NOFTZSM, Naniwako, Naveen-sa, Neelix, Nemesis of Reason, Neogura, Nesbit, Nguyenlan268, Nippoo, Nirahlee, Nitsirk, Nixdorf, Nola chick,
Noloop, Northlea, Nposs, Nsaa, Nsr wiki, Oacevedo, Ohnoitsjamie, Onlinetexts, Opinari, Optichan, Oyoyoy, PamD, Patar knight, Patrick Snyder, Pavel Vozenilek, Pdcook, Perey, Peruvianllama,
Philip Trueman, Pinkadelica, Pkirlin, Preslethe, Primaryteach99, Princetonmontessori, Qxz, RMHED, Radon210, Raepetersen, Ratchet11110, Raybechard, Realpro63, Recnilgiarc, Reinyday,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
Image:MontessoriPhonograms.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MontessoriPhonograms.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Brooksgerber
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