The document provides an overview of memory processes, including encoding, storage, and retrieval. It discusses different types of encoding (acoustic, visual, semantic), types of memories (episodic, procedural, semantic), and models of memory (levels of processing, transfer appropriate processing, parallel distributed processing, information processing model). Key concepts such as rehearsal types, memory span, and the serial position effect are also explained.

1. Memory and Models of
Memory
Introductory Psychology

2. What is Memory?
• Mental ability to retain and recall past
experience
• Based on mental processes of
– Learning
– Retention
– Recall and Retrieval

3. The Basic Memory Process
Encoding Storage Retrieval

4. Part 1 - Encoding
The process of converting physical
stimuli into a form that the brain’s
memory system can interpret and use
Physical stimuli Encoding

5. Types of Encoding
1) Acoustic: Sounds, spoken words
2) Visual: Images, “mental snapshots”
3) Semantic: “General meanings”
– Concepts and ideas
• Dual Coding: Using 2+ types of encoding
– More effective

6. What type of encoding would be
used to memorize this picture?
Visual encoding, of course!

7. How about this problem…?
Semantic encoding – the idea of
addition is conceptual

8. What about this last one…?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMzlm9OVpvU&feature=plcp&context=C3f0f838UDO
EgsToPDskKvmmlg5165l9EZxd1uYEaK
Trick question! It’s visual AND acoustic
(dual coding)

9. Part 2 - Storage
The process of keeping memories
intact in the brain’s memory system
over time

10. Types of Memories
1) Episodic – Specific events or “episodes”
2) Procedural – Information on how to do
things
– Repetition is key
– How to ride a bike, tie shoes, walk, etc
3) Semantic – Generalized knowledge of
concepts
– NOT based on specific events

11. Checkpoint! What types of
memories are described in
the following?
1) Knowledge of how to take a shower
– Procedural memory
2) Information about Newton’s three laws
of motion
– Semantic memory
3) Memory of going to Disneyland the
summer before 3rd grade?
– Episodic memory

12. Part 3 – Retrieval
The process of “locating” specific
memories in storage and bringing
them into consciousness

13. Types of Retrieval
1) Recall – Unaided retrieval of
memories
– Free response questions, oral exams
2) Recognition – Retrieval with help
of hints
– Easier than recall
– Multiple choice tests

14. Categories of Memories Retrieved
• Explicit – Deliberately remembered
• Implicit – Unintentional recollection
– Influence of prior experiences
– Unconscious, you have no control over
this
– “Good guys” and “bad guys”

15. Models of Memory

16. 1. Levels of Processing (LoP)
States that the quality of memory is based
on the degree that information is processed
• More examples
• Last night’s TV show
Quality means that memories are…
– Properly stored
– Easily recalled
– Not quickly forgotten

17. Two Types of Rehearsal
• Rehearsal – Mental techniques used to
remember information
• Maintenance – Repeating information over
and over
– No connections
– Rote memorization of facts
• Elaborative – Relating new and old
information
– Builds connections
– More effective over time

18. Connection Questions
Consider the following situation…
Questions:
1. What type of rehearsal is each student using?
2. Who will (most likely) remember the prefixes
longer?
3. How can you use your knowledge of rehearsal
and the LoP model to study more effectively?

19. 2. Transfer Appropriate Processing
(TaP)
States that memory quality increases if
retrieval process matches original encoding
process

20. 3. Parallel Distributed Processing
(PDP)
Memories exist in a “network.” New
experiences alter this network and change
one’s knowledge base
Robin Squirrel
Roadrunner
Flamingo Birds Elephant
Mammals
Platypus
Parrot
Lay Eggs
Crocodile

21. PDP Model, Continued
• More connections, information stored longer
• Parallel processing – Portions of network activate
simultaneously
– Helps draw inferences
Robin Squirrel
Roadrunner
Flamingo Birds Elephant
Mammals
Platypus
Parrot
Lay Eggs
Crocodile

22. 4. Information Processing Model
Stimuli must pass through sensory memory,
short-term memory, and long-term memory
in order to be stored well in memory
Sensory STM LTM
Stimuli

23. Stage 1 – Sensory Memory
• Holds large amounts of information very briefly
• Sensory Registers – Store incoming stimuli
long enough for further processing
– 1 or 2 seconds
• Perception – When information is encoded
– Forgotten if not percepted
• Selective Attention – Focusing mental
resources to specific stimuli
– Filter
– Prevent against brain overload

24. Memorize the following
sequence in 10 seconds…
• 1, 5, 3
• 2, 7, 9, 3
• 2, 1, 3, 5, 6, 0, 7
• 5, 3, 2, 1, 7, 9, 8, 9, 9
• 2, 0, 3, 2, 9, 8, 7, 5, 3, 2, 8, 9, 5, 2

25. Stage 2 – Short Term Memory
(STM)
• 7 +/- 2 item memory span
• Chunking – Grouping items meaningfully
– Thinking of two 9’s as one item
– Increases STM capacity
• 18 second duration
• Uses mainly acoustic and partially visual
encoding

26. Stage 3 – Long Term Memory
(LTM)
• Unlimited capacity (hypothetically)
• Duration: 18+ seconds to forever
• Mainly semantic, partially visual
encoding

27. Serial Position Effect
Relating STM and LTM
• Serial means “in order”
• Given a list of items in a certain order…
Why?

28. Serial Position Effect, continued
• Primacy Effect – Good recall for 1st
few items
– More time to commit to LTM
• Recency Effect – Good recall for
final items
– Item still accessible in STM
– Not as strong as primacy effect
– “Cramming”

29. So which model is correct…?
• What do you think?
• Most likely, each theory has some
truth

30. Tune in next class for “Remembering and Forgetting”

31. Sources
Image, slide 1: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-
stpf5Ne2Qds/TmofNF_Cz8I/AAAAAAAADec/gR26IbT6oQ0/s1600/Pump+memory.jpg
Image, slide 6:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Keqs_young_european_hedgehog1.jpg
Video (created by me), slide 8:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMzlm9OVpvU&feature=plcp&context=C3f0f838UDOEgsT
oPDskKvmmlg5165l9EZxd1uYEaK
Image, slide 9: http://www.learningsuccess.com/memory_bank1.jpg
Image, slide 14: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-
PVAImJGSvbE/TrXfdH9Cj3I/AAAAAAAAAH0/ah4rnlfwVEQ/s1600/badguy_snidelywhiplash.jpg
Image, slide 15:
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_b3zeGvTktAU/TUvgDANyjJI/AAAAAAAABec/lquwRVNzLog/s1600/C
ogs+memory.jpg
Graph, slide 27: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Serial_position.png
Note: Pictures on slides 4, 7, 11, 12, 17, and 18 are Microsoft Office clip art pieces