CBA and Graphing

 Any set of measurement activities that uses direct
observation and recording of a student’s performance in the
local curriculum as a basis for gathering information to
make instructional decisions
o Standard directions (straightforward)
o Timing
o Set of materials (passages, sheets, lists, etc)
o Scoring rules
o Standards for judging performance
o Record forms and charts
• Curriculum Based Assessment (CBA)
• Curriculum Based Measurement (CBM)
• Curriculum Based Evaluation (CBE)

 Most forms of classroom assessment is MM
o NOT CBA
 Describes mastery of a series of short-term instructional
objectives
o Criterion-referenced tests to determine success in each sequence of
the curriculum
 Problems with MM
o Hierarchy of skills is logical, not empirical
o Assessment does not reflect maintenance or generalization
o Designed by teachers, therefore reliability and validity is unknown

 Alignment
 Technical adequacy
 Criterion-Referenced
 Sensitive to instruction/alterable variables
 Standardized
 Performance sampling
 Decision rules
 Repeated measures
 Efficient
 Efficacious
 Efficient summarizing of data
 Tests are of relatively short duration
 Direct link b/t data collection and intervention

 Unable to measure every aspect of academic
content and should not replace all achievement
tests
 Promoted as a one-size-fits-all measurement
system that will answer all questions related to
special education
 Only assesses a limited number of academic
behaviors and cannot possibly generalize to all
aspects of academic achievement – it does not
provide a comprehensive picture of skills by only
measuring fluency
 Denounces the use of published, norm-referenced
tests, but uses these to establish reliability and

 If a curriculum is inappropriate, then the outcomes
of CBM are inappropriate
 It is impossible to choose among the different CBA
models because they are so similar
 CBM is nothing more than a tack on procedure for
traditional assessments
 Using situation-based information to categorize a
student as needing services means that a student
with a disability in one school may not have a
disability in another
 The goals set by CBM are too ambitious and
unrealistic

 Type of CBA/CBM
 Used to sample across several goals at the same time
 Capstone tasks
o can only be accomplished by successfully applying a # of contributing
skills
o Ex: ORF
 Advantages
o Efficient
o Assessment in context
o Adequate opportunities for progress monitoring and data-based
modifications
 Disadvantage
o Some curricular areas do not have a capstone task
o Not good for determining where holes are in skills

 CBA/CBE
 Goals/single skills in a curricular area
 Advantage
o Can be used in areas where capstone skills are not available
o Also usually measures annual or long-term goals as long as
adequately sampling from curriculum
 Mastery Measures
o Less complex
o Less skills
o Focuses on tool skills – skills that must be performed at high levels
of proficiency or skills that are pivotal to many other operations
o Used to trouble shoot a learning problem or look at short-term
mastery of concepts

o Unique application of DA that is appropriate for problem-
solving
o Primary purpose: determine instructional level at which a
student is successful
o Useful for a variety of educational decisions

Advantages
 Tests for success in curriculum
o Continue testing until find appropriate instructional level as
opposed to traditional testing goals.
 Efficient
o Obtains a broad sample of performance in a short period of
time
o Gives large amount of data to analyze and form hypotheses
 Technically Adequate

 Screening
o Which students are currently at risk for failure?
 Progress-monitoring
o Is the student making adequate progress toward important
goals?
 Diagnostic
o What and how should we teach this student?
 Outcome
o Has this progress been a success?

 HIGH reliance on fluency (automaticity) for all areas
 Fluency = speed + accuracy
 Mostly concerned with basic skills:
o Reading fluency
o Math fluency
o Writing fluency
o Spelling
 Does not look at history, science, social studies, etc.
Assessments are called probes
 Assessed frequently as it is a capstone skill
 Can develop your own probes or use generic probes
o AIMSWeb, DIBELS, EasyCBM etc.
 Select probes that represent skills to be mastered by the
end of the year or beginning of next year

 DIBELS
o Letter Naming Fluency (LNF)
• Risk indicator for reading
o Letter Sound Fluency (LSF)
• Closely related to decoding and reading
o Initial Sound Fluency (ISF)
o Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF)
o Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF)
• Basic decoding skills
• Short vowels and consonants
 Word Identification Fluency

 Oral Reading Fluency (ORF)
o Capstone skill
 Administration
o Student is asked to read aloud for one minute from a
grade-level text
o Examiner copy of the probe has cumulative word
count
o Start stopwatch when child says first word or within 3
seconds if he/she cannot read the first word
o Mark all errors as the child reads
• Count 3 second pauses as errors
o Administer 3 probes

 Acceptable responses
o Correctly pronounced
o Self-corrected w/in 3 seconds
o Dialectical differences
o Repeated or inserted words are ignored, but indicated for error
analysis
 Errors
o Substitutions
o Omitted words
o Words mispronounced or not corrected w/in 3 seconds
o Reversals
o Numbers
 Other considerations
o Hyphenated words
o Abbreviations
o Discontinuing
o Dealing with interruptions

 Count correctly read words
o WCPM
 Count errors
o WCPM/E
 Calculate accuracy
o WCPM/(WCPM + Errors) x 100 = % Accuracy
 Looking for the median score
 Also look for:
o Errors that preserve rather than distort meaning
o Effective strategies for dealing with unknown words
o Reading with expression
o Self-correction (self-monitoring)
o Fluency or efficiency of reading
o Adjusting pace for text complexity

 Reading passage
o Silent reading
o Restore every 7th word that has been deleted and replaced with 3
words
 Better predictor of reading success for grade 4 and up
 Face validity due to its relationship to comprehension
 Group or individually administered
 Administration
o Give each student a passage
o Time for 1-3 minutes
o Grade number of correct responses
• WCPM
o Count errors

 Assesses students’ ability to generalize learned
spelling rules in novel tasks in addition
 Number of words students can spell correctly
 Words sampled from the year’s curriculum
 Administration:
o Dictate 1 word every 10 seconds grades 1-2
• 12 words or 50-70 CLS
o Dictate 1 word every 7 seconds grades 3+
• 17 words or 125-155 CLS
 Scored as correct letter sequences (CLS) and
words spelled correctly (WSC)

 Usesinstructional story starters
 Administration
o 1 minute thinking and 3 minute writing
 Can count words written or # of words spelled
correctly
 Scoring
o Total Words Written (TWW)
o Words Spelled Correctly (WSC)
o Correct Writing Sequence (CWS)
• Considered the most sensitive measure
o Total Correct Punctuation (TCP)

 Subject of math typically broken into:
o Early Numeracy
o Computation
o Concepts and Application
 Types of CBM assessment
o Single Skills
o Facts
o Grade level or Multi-Skill
 Administration
o 2 minutes
 Scoring
o Digits correct

 Early Numeracy
o Missing Numbers
o Number Identification
o Oral Counting
o Quantity Array
o Quantity Discrimination
 Concepts and Application
o Estimation
o Other math skills
• Measurement
• Time
• Graph interpretation

 Instructional Placement Standards
o Survey Level Assessments
 Benchmarks or Proficiency Levels
 National Norms
 Local Norms

 Prepare Materials
o Select a minimum of 3 probes from each level of the
curriculum
o Begin at or below the student’s grade level
 Administer and Score Probes
o Administer 3 passages per level in progressively
lower order
o Continue until the student’s normative level or
appropriate instructional level has been reached
 Summarize the Data
o Enter student median scores into a table or graph

Grade Level Level WCPM Errors Per Min

Frustration <40 >4
1-2
Instructional 40-60 4 or less

Mastery >60 4 or less

Frustration <70 >6
3-6
Instructional 70-100 6 or less

Mastery >100 6 or less

Grade Level Placement Level DC
Data from Deno and Mirkin (1977)

1-3 Frustration <20
Instructional 21-40
Mastery >41
4-12 Frustration <40
Instructional 41-80
Mastery >81
Data from Burns, VanDerHeyden, and Jiban (2006)
Frustration <14
2-3
Instructional 14-31
Mastery >31
Frustration <24
4-5
Instructional 24-49
Mastery >49

Reading SLA for Cassie Reading SLA for Lucy

Leve WCPM Errors Placement Level WCP Errors Placement
l Median Median M Median
Media
5 45 8 Frustration n
5 60 7 Frustration
4 50 7 Frustration
4 70 8 Frustration
3 55 10 Frustration
3 70 7 Frustration?
2 55 4 Instruction
al 2 70 5 Instructional
?
1 85 0 Mastery
1 85 3 Mastery

 Represent the lowest possible score one could
obtain and still be considered “OK” in the subject
area being assessed.
 Usually aligned with Instructional Placement
Standards…

Grade Task Benchmark
Kindergarten LSF 40 correct letter sounds per 1
minute
First WIF 50 correct words from list per 1
minute

Grade Fall (WCPM) Winter (WCPM) Spring (WCPM)

First -- 20 40

Second 44 68 90

Third 77 92 110

Fourth 104 115 124

Fifth 104 115 124

Sixth 109 120 125

 Norms are not available for each grade
level, but the following can be used as a
guideline:
o 1st/2nd grade lists should have 55-70 CLS
o Upper lists should have 125-155 CLS

 Available from commercial programs
 Use caution with national norms as they may fall
to the same criticisms lobbied against NRT’s
 Districts will set a threshold for lowest possible
scores before being concerned
o Many times set at 25%tile, but may be different
depending on your district

Grade Percentile Fall Winter Spring
Kindergarten 90% 21 43 53
75% 11 32 43
50% 3 19 32
25% 0 8 20
10% -- 2 11

First 90% 47 59 62
75% 37 49 52
50% 27 38 41
25% 16 27 30
10% 8 16 20

First 50% 2 4 9
Second 50% 7 14 20
Third 50% 17 24 29

Fourth 50% 26 33 39

Fifth 50% 34 40 45

Sixth 50% 40 46 50

Seventh 50% 44 50 52

Eighth 50% 50 52 56

First 50% 28 41 45
Second 50% 49 55 61
Third 50% 80 90 100

Fourth 50% 92 107 107

Fifth 50% 115 116 120

Sixth 50% 120 119 129

Seventh 50% 112 121 124

Eighth 50% 129 122 118


1 50th 5 11 15

2 50th 10 22 22

3 50th 15 24 28

4 50th 33 44 52

5 50th 30 38 47

6 50th 28 36 34

 A student’s performance is compared to students that are
participating in the same “local” curriculum
 The distance between the referred student’s performance
and those of their peers is examined for significance
 Most useful for screening decisions
 In small districts, all students complete the same tasks and
are rank ordered by performance
 In large districts, a random sample is taken and the same
procedure is conducted
 Collect data for fall, winter, and spring
 Collect a base year period of 3 years, then update norms
every 3rd year
 If new curriculum is adopted or there is a change in the size
or other student population characteristics, collect new

 Provides data that fuels the system
o Who to service
o How best to intervene
o Whether the interventions are effective
 Assessment method for screening, prescriptive
decisions, and progress-monitoring
 Defensible
 Highly effective
 Frequently collected
 Precise as students progress through the tiers

 Schoolwide screening
o Universal screening & PM of
all students are the hallmarks
of Tier I
 Early Identification
 Direct academic methods

 CBM heavily relied upon here
o Defensible, feasible, & repeatable
 Data needs to identify the category of
the deficit
 Sub-skill mastery measures are
important
o Identifying areas of remediation within tier II
intervention

 Most defensible of outcome data
 Multiple methods
o Less students makes more cumbersome methods feasible

 Improves understanding of the data
 Mechanism for communication
 Motivator and reinforcer
 Allows us to record changes in student learning
over time
o Level of performance
o Rate of progress
 Important decision-making tool

 Ongoing access to complete record of data
 Direct and continuous contact with the data
allows for exploration of behavior as it occurs
 Judgmental aids
 Allows for independent judgment of meaning
 Effective source of feedback for the behavior

 Baseline data
 Student Data
o Data points – quantifiable amount of behavior and time and condition
under which measurement was conducted
o Data path – connecting of the data points (relationship between the
IV and DV)
 Figure legend – identifies IV and DV
 X and Y axes
 Intervention and Phase lines
 Goal and/or Aimline
 Trend line

 X-axis = time
 Y-axis = outcome data
 All axes and conditions should be labeled
 Scales should:
o Begin at zero

o Be evenly spaced (equal-interval)

o Show scale breaks (Spring Break, holidays)

o Cover the range of variability

o Provide a “key” when multiple variables are presented

 Essential
to determining if the intervention caused
any change in the target behavior
o Provides understanding of behavior before an
intervention is implemented
 Critical to progress monitoring
 Allows for prediction of what the behavior will look
like in the future if it is not remediated
 Steps:
o Identify target behavior and intervention
o Collect a series of stable data points
• In general, 3 data points

 Essential component of RTI
 CBA indicates progress toward intervention goals
 Goals must be written in a clear, observable, measurable
way
 Must include
o Time
o Learner
o Behavior
o Level
o Content
o Material
o Criteria

o Time: amount of time the goal is written for
• “In 2 weeks…”
o Learner: the student for whom the goal is written for
• “…Jose will…”
o Behavior: the specific skill the student will demonstrate
• “…read aloud…”
o Level: the grade/level the content is from
• “at the first-grade level”
o Content: what the student is learning about
• “…in reading…”
o Material: What the student is using
• “…using first grade passages from DIBELS ORF…”
o Criteria: Expected level of performance, including time and
accuracy
• “…40 WCPM with greater than 95% accuracy.”

 Time: decide when the student will be addressed again in
the RTI meeting
 Behavior: determined by CBA/Schoolwide Screening
 Level: determined by CBA/SLA
 Material: determine an intervention after behavior and
level are identified
 Criteria: use SLAs, benchmarks, growth rates to calculate
where the student “should” be at the next RTI meeting if
the intervention is effective

 End of Year Benchmarking
o Mastery Standards
 Growth Rates
 Intra-Individual Framework
 Local and National Norms

Grade Realistic Growth Ambitious Growth Growth Rate per
Rates per Week Rates per Week Week
First 2 3 1.80

Secon 1.5 2 1.66
d
Third 1 1.5 1.18

Fourth 0.85 1.1 1.01

Fifth 0.5 0.8 0.58

Sixth 0.3 0.65 0.66

Grade Realistic Growth Rates Ambitious Growth Rates
per Week per Week
1 0.4 0.84

2 0.4 0.84

3 0.4 0.84

4 0.4 0.84

5 0.4 0.84

6 0.4 0.84

Grade Growth Rates per
Week (CLS)
Second 1-1.5

Third 0.65-1

Fourth 0.45-0.85

Fifth 0.3-0.65

Six 0.3-0.65

Grade Realistic Growth Rates per Ambitious Growth Rates per
Week Week

1 0.30 0.50

2 0.30 0.50

3 0.30 0.50

4 0.70 1.15

5 0.75 1.20

6 0.45 1.00

Duration of Treatment
1 week 2 weeks 3 weeks 1 month 2 mos 4 mos

Every 2 4 6 7 15 30
other

1x 5 10 15 20 41 81
Dose
Per 2x 6 13 19 26 52 103
Day
4x 7 15 22 29 58 117

8x 12 24 35 47 95 189

 First, find student’s median baseline score
(based on at least 3 scores) (ex., 29)
 Find “normal” growth for student (ex, .85 for 4th
grader)
 Multiply norm by number of weeks left in year
(ex., 16 x .85 = 13.6)
 Add this to median (ex., 13.6 + 29 = 42.6)
 43 is your new end-of-year goal
 Connect to baseline median for Goal Line

 May be more appropriate for students who you
know are well-below or above the norm
 Need at least 8 data points to begin
 Figure out individual student’s own rate of
progress based on first (8) data points.
 Order scores from smallest to largest
 Find range (largest – smallest)
 Divide by number of weeks (not days) that the *8) pts
are based one.
 That is student’s current average weekly gain

 To set goal, multiply individual’s own rate
of improvement by 1.5
 Then, multiply that “new” rate of
improvement by the number of weeks left
in the year
 Add that to the student’s median to obtain
end-of-year goal

 David’s 1st 8 scores
 10, 12, 9, 14, 12, 15, 12, 14 (one score per week)
 Median: 9, 10, 12, 12, 12, 14, 14, 15
 Range: difference between high and low scores
 15-9 = 6
 Divide by number of weeks elapsed
 6/ 8 = .75
 Multiply by 1.5
 0.75 x 1.5 = 1.125
 Multiply by number of weeks left
 1.125 x 14 = 15.75
 Add sum to median score
 5.75 + 12 = 27.75
 End of year performance goal is 28.
 Connect median baseline score to end-of year goal = Goal
Line

 Local Norms
o Set goals based on performance of children from
same educational environment
o Cautionary statements!
 National Norms
o Set goals based on large samples of students

 Can be linear
o Showing how the data “should” progress if the student
is to meet the goal in the specified time frame
 Can be horizontal
o Displaying the discrepancy/closing of the gap
between current performance and goal performance
 Or both

 Formative evaluation
 Informs viewers if the student is on track to meet the goal
o Predicts future performance if intervention remains in
place
o Decisions about overall movement of the behavior can
be made
 Applied to the graph after 7-11intervention data points have
been collected
 Can be applied via:
o Software (Excel)
o Tukey Method

 Graphed scores (not baseline) are divided into 3
fairly equal groups
 Draw vertical lines to separate 3 groups (2 lines)
 In the first and third groups:
 Find median data point
 Mark an x where median data point intersects with
median date for that group
 Draw line between x’s of 1st and 3rd groups
 This is the trend line

Median score
for first group
of data points

Median score
for last set of
data points

 Formative evaluation
 Visual analysis – systematic form of graph interpretation
 Questions to be answered:
o Did meaningful changes occur?
o Can the change be attributed to the intervention or
instructional program?
o Should adjustments be made?

 Level
 Comparing level of data at baseline to intervention phase
 Comparing level of data to the goal
 Immediacy/Latency of Change
o If the change is immediate it probably is due to the intervention
o If the response is delayed it is difficult to ascribe behavior
change to the intervention
 Variability
o Amount of variation in range or consistency in the set of data
 Trend
o Rate of change within a phase

 To analyze a trend, you must compare it to the goal/aimline
 Team compares actual progress (trendline) against
expected progress (aimline)
o If trend is parallel to the aimline
• Indicates that the student has made consistent growth
• Continue as planned
o If trend is steeper than the aimline
• Indicates that the student has exceeded the goal
• Look for ways to maintain or generalize while fading the
intervention, if appropriate
o If trend is flatter than the aimline
• Indicates slower progress than anticipated

 Don’tneed a trendline for this
 Based on 4 most recent consecutive data points
o If scores are above goal line, goal needs to be
increased
o If scores are below goal line, student instructional
program or intervention needs revision

I Inspect the last 4 data points.
D Decide what the scores look like. Are they
going up? Down? Variable?
E Evaluate why the scores are this way?
(motivation, attendance, instruction?)
A Apply a decision to improve achievement (continue
intervention w/o change, increase goal, tweak
instruction or intervention, add a 2nd intervention, etc.

 Intervention Central
o www.interventioncentral.org
 National Center on Student Progress Monitoring
 Big Ideas in Beginning Reading
 Research Institute on PM
 Florida Center for Reading Research
 DIBELS
 AIMSWeb
 Mathfactcafe.com
 www.aplusmath.com
 Themathworksheetsite.com

 Superkids.com/aweb/tools/math/
 www.schoolhousetech.com
 http://www.gosbr.net/
 http://ebi.missouri.edu/
 http://www.fsu.edu/~truancy/interventions.html
 http://www.pbis.org/
 https://www.msu.edu/course/cep/886/Reading%20Comp
rehension/main.html

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