This document discusses the key aspects of designing and developing a database. It covers database concepts like entity-relationship modeling, normalization, and database development methodologies like SSADM. SSADM involves phases like feasibility study, requirements analysis, logical design, and physical design. The document provides examples of one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many relationships. It also discusses applying normalization rules and the database development cycle to design a database for storing product and customer data for a computer hardware store.

1. DATA BASE
IntroductionLO1 Understand databases and data management systems1.1 Analyze the key
issues and application of databases within organizational environments…1.2 Critically
evaluate the features and advantages of database management systems………LO2
Understand database design techniques2.1 Analyze a database developmental
methodology………………………………………..2.2 Discuss entity-relationship modelling and
normalization……………………………….LO3 be able to design, create and document databases3.1
Apply the database developmental cycle to a given data set……………………………3.2 Design a
fully functional database (containing at least four inter-relational tables) including user
interface………………………………………………………………………3.3 Evaluate the effectiveness of the
database solution and suggest methods of
improvement………………………………………………………………………………….3.4 Provide supporting user
and technical
documentation………………………………..….Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………
…………References……………………………………………………………………………………P1.1 Analyse the key
issues such as Integrity, Security, Recovery, Concurrency & Atomicity etc. and application of
databases within organizational environments such as Banking, Retail, HR, Education etc.In
recent years, database systems have aIDed support for a number of non-traditional data
types such as text documents, images, and maps and other spatial data. The goal is to make
databases universal servers, which can store all types of data. Rather than aID support for
all such data types into the core database, vendors offer aID-on packages that integrate with
the database to provide such functionality.The typical file-oriented system is supported by a
conventional operating system. Permanent records are stored in various files and a number
of different application programs are written to extract records from and aID records to the
appropriate files.1.1.1 Key issues of Database:1.1.1.1 Centralized control of data – Data
should be store in a central database server. Any components of database such as table,
forms, reports, query access are based on the user privilege granted from the
server.1.1.1.2 Data Redundancy means the appearance of the same data factor in more
thanone field or table of data, or including a data factor as a separate entity when it can be
easily inferred from information in existing data fields. This repetition of the data can cause
some distortions and anomalies in the results. The term is also used to refer to the backing
up or copying data on aIDitional servers or by other electronic means as a security
measure.1.1.1.3 Integrity implies the accuracy and consistency of stored data, indicated
by anAbsence of any alteration in data between two updates of a data record. Data integrity

2. is imposed within a database at its design stage through the use of standard rules and
procedures, and is maintained through the use of error checking and validation
routines.CourseCourse ID Course name Course
levelC001 HNCCSD L4C002 HNDCSD L5C003 BSc Computing L61.1.1.4 Security
refers to the collective measures used to protect and secure a database ordatabase
management software from illegitimate use and malicious threats and attacks. It is a broad
term that includes a multitude of processes, tools and methodologies that ensure security
within a database environment.1.1.1.5 Backup Duplicate (redundant) copy of data saved
during a backup session, andAvailable as replacement of damaged or lost primary
data.1.1.1.6 Recovery means restoration in full or in part of the data stored in deleted
orDamaged data files. In case of file deletion, if the space originally occupied by the deleted
file is not overwritten (or the disk is not reformatted after deletion) the file may be
recoverable through common ‘ undelete’ programs. In case of damaged files (or files
stored on damaged media), custom-written software and sophisticated equipment is
required for any extent of recovery.1.1.1.7 Atomicity is a feature of databases systems
dictating where a transaction must be all-Or-nothing. That is, the transaction must either
fully happen, or not happen at all. It must not complete partially.1.1.1.8 Consistency, in the
context of databases, states that data cannot be written that wouldViolate the database’ s
own rules for valid data. If a certain transaction occurs that attempts to introduce
inconsistent data, the entire transaction is rolled back and an error returned to the
user.1.1.1.9 Isolation, in the context of databases, specifies when and how the
changesImplemented in an operation become visible to other parallel operations.
Transaction isolation is an important part of any transactional system. It deals with
consistency and completeness of data retrieved by queries un-affecting a user data by other
user actions. A database acquires locks on data to maintain a high level of isolation.1.1.1.10
Durability in databases is the property that ensures transactions are saved permanently and
do not accidentally disappear or get erased, even during a database crash. This is usually
achieved by saving all transactions to a non-volatile storage medium.1.1.1.11 Data
Independence is the idea that generated and stored data should be kept separate from
applications that use the data for computing and presentation. In many systems, data
independence is an innate function related to the multiple components of the system;
however, it is possible to keep data contained within a use application.1.1.2 Application of
databases within organizational environmentsDatabase systems are widely used in
different areas because of their numerous advantages. Some of the most common database
applications are listed here.• Airlines and railways: Airlines and railways use online
databases for reservation, and for displaying the schedule information.• Banking: Banks
use databases for customer inquiry, accounts, loans, and other transactions.• Education:
Schools and colleges use databases for course registration, result, and other
information.• Telecommunications: Telecommunication departments use databases to
store information about the communication network, telephone numbers, record of calls,
for generating monthly bills, etc.• Credit card transactions: Databases are used for
keeping track of purchases on credit cards in order to generate monthly statements.• E-
commerce: Integration of heterogeneous information sources (for example, catalogues) for

3. business activity such as online shopping, booking of holiday package, consulting a doctor,
etc.• Health care information systems and electronic patient record: Databases are used
for maintaining the patient health care details.• Digital libraries and digital publishing:
Databases are used for management and delivery of large bodies of textual and multimedia
data.• Finance: Databases are used for storing information such as sales, purchases of
stocks and bonds or data useful for online trading.• Sales: Databases are used to store
product, customer and transaction details.Education Advantages• Strengthen distance
learning programs with apps that make data, class information and feedback accessible in
real-time.• Improve field research results by giving professors and student’ s access to
online data management solutions.• Reallocate funds typically spent on expensive IT
operations and software maintenance.• Tracking test scores with fewer mistakes and
share student progress.• Encouraging parent participation by communicating and
gathering feedback.• Sharing knowledge, tips, and documents between faculty
members.• Making it easy to access emergency contact information.• Reporting
absences and streamlining other administrative tasks.Banking• the highest level of
security• back up- every hour, after every transactions or the whole backup after
midnightThe efficiency of an automated payments process is reliant on the input of accurate
data. Data validation is the only way to ensure that the information captured is
accurate.Data communications costs are usually less with distributed databases because
processing can be done locally. For example, with customer records housed locally, a branch
does not incur telecommunications costs to communicate with a headquarters computer
that houses the branch’ s data.If there is a hardware and software problem at a computer
center that stores and processes all branch information, all the branches may be affected.
With distributed databases, many branches can continue computer processing without
waiting for the central location to become operable again.1.2 Critically evaluate the features
and advantages of database management systemsA database is a software program, used to
store, delete, update and retrieve data. A database can be limited to a single desktop
computer or can be stored in large server machines, like the IBM Mainframe.1.2.1 Features
of Database1.2.1.1 Primary Key – The unique data field in a table is assigned a primary key.
The primary key helps in the identification of data. It also checks for duplicates within the
same table, thereby reducing data redundancy. There are tables which have a secondary key
in aIDition to the primary key.1.2.1.2 Foreign Key – The secondary key is also called
‘ foreign key’ . The secondary key refers to the primary key of another table, thus
establishing a relationship between the two tables.1.2.1.3 Remote Control Refers to a
program’ s or device’ s ability to control a computer system from a remote location.
Remote-control programs for PCs enable you to access data stored on your home system
even when you are travelling.1.2.1.4 Control provides access to data stored in databases
using any one of three types of Record set objects. The Data control enables you to move
from record to record and to display and manipulate data from the records in bound
controls.1.2.1.5 Table Refers to data arranged in rows and columns. A spreadsheet, for
example, is a table. In relational database management systems, all information is stored in
the form of tables.1.2.1.6 Forms A formatted document containing blank fields that users
can fill in with data. With paper forms, it is usually necessary for someone to transfer the

4. data from the paper to a computer database, where the results can then be statistically
analysed.1.2.1.7 Query A request for information from a database. There are three general
methods for posing queries:• Choosing parameters from a menu: In this method, the
database system presents a list of parameters from which you can choose. This is perhaps
the easiest way to pose a query because the menus guide you, but it is also the least
flexible.• Query by example (QBE): In this method, the system presents a blank record
and lets you specify the fields and values that define the query.• Query language: Many
database systems require you to make requests for information in the form of a stylized
query that must be written in a special query language. This is the most complex method
because it forces you to learn a specialized language, but it is also the most powerful.1.2.1.8
Reports represent a formatted and organized presentation of data. Most database
management systems include a report writer that enables you to design and generate
reports.1.2.1.9 Triggers – In a DBMS, a trigger is a SQL procedure that initiates an action
(i.e., fires an action) when an event (INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE) occurs.1.2.2 Advantages
of database management systems1.2.2.1 Sharing of data In DBMS, data can be shared by
authorized users of the organization. The DBA manages the data and gives rights to users to
access the data. Many users can be authorized to access the same set of information
simultaneously. The remote users can also share same data. Similarly, the data of same
database can be shared between different application programs.1.2.2.2 Reduction of
Redundancy/duplication In DBMS, the data redundancy can be controlled or reduced but is
not removed completely. Sometimes, it is necessary to create duplicate copies of the same
data items in order to relate tables with each other. By controlling the data redundancy, you
can save storage space. Similarly, it is useful for retrieving data from database using
queries.1.2.2.3 Referential integrity Referential integrity is a relational database concept,
which states that table relationships must always be consistent. In other words, any foreign
key field must agree with the primary key that is referenced by the foreign key. Thus, any
primary key field changes must be applied to all foreign keys, or not at all. The same
restriction also applies to foreign keys in that any updates (but not necessarily deletions)
must be propagated to the primary parent key.P2.1- Analyse a database developmental
methodology such as SSADM and its phases feasibility study, requirement analysis,
requirement specification, physical design etc.2.1.1 SSADM – Structured Systems Analysis
and Design Methods• Feasibility Study – the business area is analyzed to determine
whether a system can cost effectively support the business requirements.• Requirements
Analysis – the requirements of the system to be developed are identified and the current
business environment is modeled in terms of the processes carried out and the data
structures involved.• Requirements Specification – detailed functional and non-functional
requirements are identified and new techniques are introduced to define the required
processing and data structures.• Logical System Specification – technical systems options
are produced as well as the logical design of update and enquiry processing and system
dialogues.• Physical Design -a physical database design and a set of program
specifications are created using the logical system specification and technical system
specification.P2.2 – Discuss entity-relationship modelling such as one-to-one, one-to-many
and many-to-many relationship and normalization with 1st, 2nd and 3rd normalization to

5. design database solution for Computer Choice.2.2.1 Entity-relationship modelling2.2.1.1
EntityAn entity-relationship model is a systematic way of describing and defining a business
process. The process is modelled as components (entities) that are linked with each other
by relationships that express the dependencies and requirements between them, such as:
one building may be divided into zero or more apartments, but one apartment can only be
located in one building. Entities may have various properties (attributes) that characterize
them. Diagrams created to represent these entities, attributes, and relationships graphically
are called entity– relationship diagrams.2.2.1.2 Attributes- These are the ‘ characteristics’
shared by all entities of a given entity type. There are data elements associated with an
entity.2.2.2.3 RelationshipEntity Relationship: Relationships allow you to describe the
connections between different database tables in powerful ways. Once you’ ve described
the relationships between your tables, you can later leverage that information to perform
powerful cross-table queries, known as joins.There are three different types of database
relationships, each named according to the number of table rows that may be involved in
the relationship. Each of these three relationship types exists between two tables.• One-
to-one relationships occur when each entry in the first table has one, and only one,
counterpart in the second table. One-to-one relationships are rarely used because it is often
more efficient to simply put all of the information in a single table.• One-to-many
relationships are the most common type of database relationship. They occur when each
record in the first table corresponds to one or more records in the second table but each
record in the second table corresponds to only one record in the first table. For example, the
relationship between a Teachers table and a Students table in an elementary school
database would likely be a one-to-many relationship, because each student has only one
teacher, but each teacher may have multiple students.• Many-to-many relationships occur
when each record in the first table corresponds to one or more records in the second table
and each record in the second table corresponds to one or more records in the first table.
For example, the relationship between a Teachers and a Courses table would likely be
many-to-many because each teacher may instruct more than one course and each course
may have more than one instructor.2.2.2 Normalisation is primarily a tool used to validate
and improve a logical design so that it satisfies certain constraints that avoid unnecessary
duplication of data.Database normalization has the rules to be followed while creating
databases. Each rule is called as normal form.?First Normal form states – Remove duplicate
column and identify each set of related data with a primary key.?Second normal form –
Create relationship between master and master detail tables using foreign key.?Third
normal form – Remove the fields that do not depend on the primary key.P 3.1 – Apply the
database developmental cycle i.e. learners need to show the workings of different phases of
database development methodology to develop database solution for the Computer Choice
given data set.SSADM using to develop our DB solutionI. Feasibility Studya. Economic
feasibility – • Budget – no academic course work,• Time – 15 weeksb. Technical
feasibility• Hardware – RAM-1/2GB, Processor – Celeron/Pentium Dual Core, AMD, HID
– 40GB,• Software – Windows-7/8, MS Access/Open Office Base, Smart Draw, MS
Excel/Open Office Calc, MS Word/ O F Writer.• Operational feasibility – Sales, Orders,
Inventory.II. Requirements AnalysisMr. Craig is a recently graduate from university and is

6. planning to start up a computer hardware store to sell computers and computer
accessories. For Computer Choice it is important to sell the products at the right price and
to keep the details of the customers. Also the company plans to recruit 6-9 members of staff
and for every sale they will earn commission and this should also be included in the
database. Manufacturer and supplier details are also important so Mr. Craig wants to
include them in the database as well.ORDER TODAY YOUR PAPER WITH SIMILAR
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