An introduction into educational theory related to anatomy teaching & learning.

1. Educational Theory
Session 1
© Siobhan Connolly

2. Introduction
• Why bother with theory?
• How is theory constructed and used?
• The story of educational theory
• Nature vs Nurture: The rise of domains of educational theory
Getting started: Relevant educational theories
• Adult learning theory
• Social Cognitive theory
• Deep, Surface & Strategic learning
• Self-Directed learning
• Experiential and situated learning
Bringing theory and practice together
• Reflection & reflective practice
• Transformative learning

3. Why does theory matter?
• Educational theories are
multiple conceptual
frameworks/models that
describe how information is
absorbed, processed, and
retained during learning.
• Theories are used to explore
and test the purpose,
application and interpretation
of education and learning.
• There is no such thing as
‘educational theory’ Why? …. EDUCATION OPERATES IN OPEN SYSTEMS

4. Theory is underpinned by guiding philosophies
Ideas on the nature of knowledge and how we acquire it
How that knowledge goes from being an idea to facets we can test to
describing reality

5. A Tale As Old As Time (500 B.C. - Present
• Epistemology: What is knowledge?
• Ontology: How do we come to know
knowledge?
Socrates: Be humble and curious
Plato: ‘Know thyself’
Aristotle: Seek and you shall find

6. Freire: Learn from the world,
yourself and others.
Rousseau: Do it your way!

7. NATURE NURTURE
Cognitivism Behaviorism
Intelligent Action
Insight
Scaffolding
Constructivism
Role-Modelling
Discovery
Trial & Error
Responding to the environment
Classical & Operant conditioning
Experience
APPROACHES TO EDUCATIONAL THEORIES

8. 500 B.C - 1948

10. MASLOWS HEIRARCHY OF NEEDS

11. What there is What there ought to be
Reality
AspirationNeeds
Resources
Human
Material
Ability

13. Main Domains of Educational Theory

14. NATURE NURTURE
Biological/Neurolism Cognitivism Humanism Behaviorism
Associative Teaching/Learning
Information Processing
Intelligent Action
Insight
Scaffolding
Constructivism
Role-Modelling
Discovery
Andragogy
Facilitation
Hierarchy of needs
Transformational learning
Trial & Error
Responding to the environment
Classical & Operant conditioning
Experience
APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY & BIOLOGY = EDUCATIONAL THEORIES
Biology How we think about things Emotional Needs How they make us learn/act

15. Contemporary Theories
• Competency
• Professionalism
• Learning Styles
• Behavior Management
• Coaching & Mentoring
• Team-Work

17. Adult Learning Theory

18. Motivation Matters
“These basic needs have relevance to education in that they provide the
deep motivating springs for learning, and in that they prescribe
certain conditions that the educators must take into account if they are
to help people learn….”
Malcolm Knowles 1980.

19. Andragogy/Adult Learning Theory
• Malcolm Knowles was inspired by humanist psychology
• Fundamental Assumptions on how & why adults learn
1. Personal Goal(s): What do I need?
2. Context: Why do I need to know it?
3. Experiential: Let me figure out the problem and learn by doing.
4. Meaning: Is this relevant/of value to my goal(s).

20. Andragogy or Pedagogy?
Andragogy for adult learners
assumes that adults are self-
motivated and self-directed.
Pedagogy for children assumes
children are dependent learners.
Caveat! Learning anything new
requires guidance.
Distinguish based on
characteristics/motivation

21. Andragogy in Action
• Provide learners with meaningful tasks
• Pace learning through deadlines
• A respectful relationship between faculty and students
• Provide the ‘Ikea Kit’ for learning
• Reinforce the real life application of the knowledge
• Understand motivation and needs to help students meet them

22. 5 Minute Task
• Take a piece of paper & write down the following
 A bit about yourself i.e. previous education/work
 Why did you want to do the MSc. in Human
Anatomy
 What excites you about being an MSc. student?
 What scares you about being an MSc. student?
 By doing this course what goal(s) do you hope to
achieve?

23. Social Cognitive Theory

24. Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory of Learning
• We are social creatures
• Learning is a social activity
• Environmental factors effect are
ability to socialise and learn
• Educators can modify and
manipulate the learning
environment.

26. Personal Factors Student
Environmental
Factors
Behavioral
Factors
Learning
Environment
Learning
Activities
RECIPRICOL INTERACTION
FeedbackRole-modelling
Adapted from Figure 2.1 Swanwick (2014) pg. 10

27. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory:
5 Capabilities needed to learn

28. Symbolising Capability
• If you are skeptical about all
things can you test all your
doubts and be coherent?
• Symbolism tests? Ans: ________
• Models & Lenses = theory of
reality

29. Mapping of neuronal circuits in the brain
IDEA THEORY/MODEL

30. THEORY/MODEL EXPERIMENT & ANSWER

31. Forethought Capability
• Plans/Goals motivate us
• Those who have a why . . .
• Deadlines are not all bad!

32. Vicarious Capability
• Socrates was kind of right (ish)
but trial & error all the time!?

33. Self-Reflective Capability
But more on that later . . .

34. Social cognitive theory & self efficacy
• Based on individuals judgement
• Self-efficacy affects performance for better or
for worse
• Previous negative/positive experience
• Vicarious experience = Others performance
can make us believe in ourselves
• Honest persuasion: You can do it!
• Physiological state i.e. good stress/bad stress

35. Social Cognitive theory in action
• Clear objectives and goals –prescribed and personal outcomes
learners
• Clear instructions
• Demonstrate the task and be a role model
• Guide learners (know thyself) and give feedback
• Give learners the opportunity to reflect on their performance (what
went well, what didn’t, what would I do if I could do it again, what
have I learnt, what will I do differently next time and how?)

36. Deep, Surface & Strategic Learning

37. Deep Learning
• Questions everything
• Focusing on central concepts/arguments
• Actively engaging in learning (active learning
theory)
• Distinguishing between argument and evidence
• Making connections across subjects and ideas
• Connecting new and previous knowledge
• Linking it to real life

38. Encouraging Deep Learning
Showing personal
interest in the subject.
Bringing out the
structure of the subject.
Concentrating on and
ensuring plenty of time
for key concepts and
confronting students'
misconceptions.
Engaging students in
active learning.
Using assessments that
require thought, and
requires ideas to be
used together.
Relating new material to
what students already
know and understand.
Allowing students to
make mistakes without
penalty and reward
Being consistent and fair
in assessing declared
intended course
outcomes, and hence
establishing trust.

39. Surface learning
• Questions little if it all
• Learns disjointed facts (rote learning)
• Struggles to grasp the concept ‘big picture’
• Relies on pattern recognition
• Treats subjects as separate entities in a
programme
• Assessment drives learning
• Driven by distraction &/or high anxiety (low self-
efficacy)

40. Discouraging surface learning
Formal/Informal
Assessments
Have more than one assessment
Avoid Overload Avoid cognitive overload
Clear Expectations Clear expectations and outcomes
Probe/Question Probe their previous and existing knowledge
Get Active Get them actively learning rather than passively absorbing
Be Helpful Be Proactive in help students to connect the dots. Learning is a two way street.

41. Strategic Learning
• Use Deep & Surface approaches
depending on what they are
learning
• ’Learn to learn’
• Adapt to situational pressures
• Use assessment based clues and
ques
• Motivated by high grades

42. Self-Directed Learning
• Builds on taught material
• Taking responsibility
• Individual choice & freedom
• Learner’s in control = own needs, own goals
• Self-management, assessment and discovery
• Helps transfer knowledge to other contexts
• +/- sociability
• Experimenting with learning approaches

43. David Kolb’s Experiential Learning
Immerse yourself and do it!
Applied learning.
The senses
Indirect & Symbolic
Doing Reflection in Action

44. Kolbs 4 Kinds of learning environments
Feel – affectively orientated
Exploring motivations, beliefs, values, goals and potential bias through workign with
others.
Think – symbolically orientated
Building knowledge through lectures, tutorials, discussions formulating and sharing
ideas then putting them to the test. Bridging theory to practice.
Watch – perceptively orientated
Learning from others, role-modelling, adapting to the environment.
Do – behaviorally orientated
Managing and prioritizing the tasks at hand (immersion) maximizing opportunities.

45. Experiential learning
• Plan
• Create their own learning outcomes
• Are open to opportunities
• Adapt to uncertainty and
circumstances
• Align personal goals with overall
outcomes

46. Experiential Teachers
are Facilitators

47. Situated Learning: Immersion Part II
Acquisition
Building and honing competencies to
become a professional
Participation
Collaborating with other learners and
senior members of a ‘community of
practice’ = peer, near peer or experts.
Acquisition and participation increases
expertise
Need to be accepted by communities of
practice
Implicit Expectations
Implicit practices
‘Norms’
Practice-based Values
Local culture
Organisational Culture
Informalities

49. TAKE 15 MINUTES

50. Reflective Learning

51. Reflective Learning
• Reflection is the hallmark of
academia/scholarly pursuit
• Bridges theory practice
• Key component to professionalism
• It challenges existing paradigms to
transform thinking
• Integrates philosophy, theory and
practical application
• “Know thyself” = “challenge thyself”

52. Transformative Learning Theory

53. Transformative Learning Theory
• Disorientating Dilemma
• Critical self-assessment
• Explore all the options – discuss, debate etc.
• Acquire new knowledge and can use it to
plan/move forward
• Use it in a new role building competence and
confidence
• Open to new perspectives
• Something new/challenging
• Superficial vs Deep Reflection
• Multiple Viewpoints
• Previous thinking fragments and new
ideas are being connected
• Test that knowledge
• Defending solutions

54. Transformative Learning Theory
Challenge beliefs against facts and theories through reflection = Emancipatory

55. Reflection
Educational Theories Practical Application
Philosophy
Professional & Personal
Development
Transformation
Theories are rooted in fallible facts Practice is based on theory
Bridges theory & practice:
Cooperation & CollaborationMakes us aware of our interpretation & beliefs,
challenging them through various perspectives

56. References
• Bates B. (2016)
• Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. SHRE and Open University Press.
• Chan L.C., & Pawlina W. (2015) Teaching Anatomy: A Practical Guide. Springer, Switzerland.
• Entwistle , N. (1988). Styles of Learning and Teaching, David Fulton.
• Houghton, W. (2004) Engineering Subject Centre Guide: Learning and Teaching Theory for
Engineering Academics. Loughborough: HEA Engineering Subject Centre.
• Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education, Routledge.
• Swanwick T. (2014) Understanding Medical Education, Evidence, Theory & Practice 2nd
Edition. Wiley Blackwell, UK.