សៀវភៅមូលដ្ឋានគ្រឺះទូទៅគ្រឿងបង្គុំនៃសំណង់.pdf

Department of Civil Engineering NPIC
Construction General - 1 -
matika
CMBUk I..............................................................................6
eRKagsMNg;emkanik.................................................................6
Structural Mechanic .............................................................6
1> karkMNt;bnÞúk.....................................................................6
1>1 RbePTénbnÞúk.................................................................6
1>2 bnÞúk (Service Loads) ..........................................................8
1>3 emKuNbnÞúk...................................................................9
2> Stress and Strain................................................................11
2>1 Static Equilibrium .............................................................11
2>2 Unit Stress and Strain ..........................................................12
2>3 Hooke’s Law .................................................................12
2>4 Constant Unit Stress ...........................................................13
2>5 Poisson’s Ratio................................................................14
CMBUkII ³..........................................................................15
dI nig RKwH........................................................................15
Soil and foundation............................................................15
1> esckþIepþIm......................................................................15
1>1 emkanicdI...................................................................15
1>2 visVkmμRKWH (Foundation Engineering) ...........................................16
2> karsikSaRsavRCavelIkardæanpÞal; (field exploitation) ..................................16
2>1 karsikSaelIÉksar(document Review) .........................................17
2>2 karsikSaRsavRCavépÞeRkamdI (Subsurface Exploration ) ............................18
2>3 sMNakKMrUdI Soil Sampling....................................................19

2>4 karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæan Field testing ..........................................21
3> RKwH Foundation ................................................................23
3>1 RKwHrak;Shallow Foundation ..................................................24
3>2 RKwHeRCA....................................................................27
4> karCIkdIsMrab;eFVIRKwH Foundation excavation..........................................28
4>1 karCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtag Footing Excavation .......................................28
4>2 karxYgsMrab; Excavation of Piers ...............................................28
4>3karCIkdIcMhr open excavation .................................................30
4>4 karCIkdIedaymanCnÞl; braced excavtion.........................................30
5>viFIbegáInsßanPaBRTRTg;dI Improvement methods......................................30
5/1 karBRgabdI Grading..........................................................30
5>2 eKalkarN_énkarbgðab; Compaction Foundation ..................................33
CMBUkIII³ ..........................................................................35
eRKagsMNg;ebtugmanq¥wgr)aeEdkBRgwgnig sMPar³ebtug..............................35
Reinforcing bar concrete sturcture and concrete meterial .................35
1> sMParsuIm:g;t_ Cementitious material ................................................35
1>1 RbePTénsMPar³suIm:g;t_ Type of cementitious meterials ............................35
1>2 suIm:g;t_Br½tøg; (Portland Cement) ...............................................36
1>3 suIm:g;t_GaluymIj:Úm Aluminous Cement ........................................37
1>4 suIm:g;t_FmμCati Natural Cements ...............................................38
1>5 kMe)ar Limes................................................................38
1>6 suIm:g;t_erobdæ Masonry ament ................................................41
1>7 Fly ashes ..................................................................41
2>fμbMEbk Aggregate ...............................................................42

2>1 fμbMEbkTMgn;FmμtaNormal –weigth aggregates....................................42
2>2 fμbMEbkEdlmanTMgn;F¶n;nig Rsal Heavy weigth and light weigth aggregate ..........43
3> TwkfñaMKImIsMrab;ebtug Admixture for concrete ........................................44
3/1 TwkfñaMKImIBIKImI nig BIEr: Chimical and mineral admixture............................44
4> kMe)ar)ayGr nig ebtug Mortar and concrete .........................................47
4>1 kMe)ar)ayGr Motar ..........................................................47
4>2 ebtugsuIm:g;t_B½rtøg; Portland cement concrete.....................................48
4>3 ebtugb:UlIEmr Polymer concrete................................................48
5>karcak;ebtug Concrete Placement..................................................49
5>1 karGnuvtþn_d¾l¥ Good Pratice .................................................49
5>2viFIénkarcak;Methods of Placing ...............................................50
5>3 PaBelIsTwk Excess water ....................................................50
5>4kareFVIeGayhab; Consolidation ................................................51
5>5 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMbBaÄr Concreting vertical element ...........................52
5>6 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMedk concreting horizontal element...........................53
5>7karcak;ebtugkñúgrdUvRtCak; Concreting in cold weather.............................54
5>8karcak;ebtugGakasFatuekþA Concreting in hot weather...........................55
5>9 karEfrrkSasMeNImebtug Curing concrete .......................................55
5>10muxtMNrsMrab;ebtug Joint in concrete.........................................56
5>11 karRtYtBinitüBIkarcak;ebtug Inspection of Concrete placement ...................58
6> eRKOgbgÁúMénsMNg;ebtug Members of concrete construction.............................58
6>1kMral Slab .................................................................58
6>2 Fñwm Beam..................................................................60
6>3 CBa¢aMg Wall ................................................................60

6>4 RKwH Foundation .............................................................61
CMBUk IV ..........................................................................64
sMNg;eRKagbgÁúMGMBIEdk.............................................................64
STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION ...............................64
1> karKitbøg;éneRKOgbgÁúMDesign of Members ...........................................64
1>1 eKalkarN_sMrab; ASD nig LRFD BASED FOR ASD AND LRFD .....65
1>2 CMnYyénkarKItbøg; nigeyag Design Aids and References........................66
1>3 eRKOgbgÁúMrgnUvkMlaMgTay Tension member ...................................66
1>4 ssr Column ..............................................................67
1>5 Fñwm Beam ................................................................69
1>6 Plaster girders ..............................................................70
2> karksagsMNg;Edk Steel erection .................................................71
2>1 ]bkrN_énkarsagsg; Erection Equipment....................................73
2>2 RbeLaHkñúgkarsagsg;Fñwm Clearance for erecting beams ...........................74
2>3lMdab;énkarsagsg; Erection sequence .........................................77
2>4 dMeNIrkarpSar Field –Welding .................................................77
CMBUk V ...........................................................................80
eRKOgbgÁMGMBIeQI nigsMPar³.........................................................80
WOOD STRUCTURE AND MATERIAL .................................80
1> sMPar³ Material.................................................................81
1>1lkçN³mUldæanrbs;eQI Basic Characteristic of Wood .............................81
1>2lkçN³emkanicéneQI Mechanical Properties of Wood ..........................83
1>3 lkçN³T§iBlRsUbcMhayTwkkñúgxül; Effect of hygroscopic properties...............84
1>4> lMdab;fñak;éneQI Grade of Wood ..............................................87

1>5 sarFatubMpøaj nig sarFaturkSakarBar Destroyer and preservative....................90
1>6kavnigsarFatusMrab;eQI Glues and adhesives for wood ...........................92
1>7 karplitkþakug)øaek nigkþabnÞHepSgeTot Plywood and fabricated wood board..........93
2> karpliteQI timber nigkarksag timber fabrication and erection .......................95
2>1 karpliteRKagbgÁúMeQI Fabrication of structural timber .............................95
2>2 karsagsg;eQI timber erection................................................97
CMBUkVI³ ........................................................................101
eRKagCBa¢aMgerob¬dæ/ bøúk/ fμ¦ nigsMPar³........................................101
Masonry Structure and Material............................................101
1> esckþIepþIm Introduction ........................................................101
1>1 CBa¢aMgerobdæ Masonry Wall ................................................101
1>2 niymn½yénCBa¢aMgerobdæ Masonry Definition .................................101
2> KuNPaBénsMPar³sMrab;CBa¢aMgrabdæ Quality of Material for Masonry ..................105
2>1 tMrUvkarTUeTAsMrab;karKitCalkçN³bTdæanGeneral Requirement of Design Standard ..106
2>2 sMPar³sMrab;sMNg;rabdæ Materials for Masonry Construction ....................107
3>sMNg;rabdæ Construction of masonry............................................107
3>1 sMNg;CBa¢aMgrabdækñúgGakasFatuRtCak; Cold weather construction of masonry walls 110
3>2cgP¢ab;rvag Wythes sMrab;CBa¢aMgdæ Bond between wythes in Masonry wall .......110
3>3 rabdæeday grout grout masonry .....................................112
3>4lkç½xN½ÐTMrsMrab;CBa¢aMg Support Conditions for Wall ............................115
3>5 Corbeling................................................................115
3>6 RbelaHRbehag/ Chases nig rescesses sMrab;CBa¢aMgerobdæ.......................116
3>7 Flashing enAkñúgCBa¢aMgrabdæ................................................117
4> TMrxagsMrab;CBa¢aMgrabdænig FaturYmpSMepSg² ........................................118

Lateral support for masonry wall and other elements .................................118
4>1 TMrxagsMrab;CBa¢aMgrabdælateral support for masonry wall ........................118
4>2 bMBg;EpSg nigeCIgRkandMedApÞH Chimneys and fireplaces .........................122
4>3karpþl;nUvTMhMEdlpøas;bþÚr Provision for dimensional changes .....................123
4>4 CYsCulmuxtMNlicTwk Repair of leaky joint ....................................126
4>5 tMrUvkarkMras;CBa¢aMgdæMasonry Thickness Requirement ..........................127
CMBUk I
eRKagsMNg;emkanik
Structural Mechanic
3
1> karkMNt;bnÞúk
bnÞúk (Load) KWCakMlaMgeRkAEdlmanGMeBIelIeRKOgbgÁúMNamYy. Stress KWCakMlaMgkñúgEdl
Tb;Tl;nwgbnÞúk (Loads) . Ep¥kelIlkçN³énbnÞúkEdlRtUveKykmkGnuvtþ vaGaceFVIeGayeRKOgbgÁúMnig
smasPaBrbs;vaxUcRTg;RTay.
]TahrN_ ³ kMlaMgTajGaceFVIeGayvtßúmYyyWt kMlMagsgát;GacRc)ac;vtßúbBa©ÚlKña kMlaMgrmYlGac
Rt)aj;vtßúmYynig kMlaMgkat;pþac; (Shearing Forces) GacrujEpñkNamYyéneRKOgbgÁúMecjBIKña.
1>1 RbePTénbnÞúk
bnÞúkeRkAéneRKOgbgÁúMRtUveKEbgEckeTAtamRbePTepSg²Kña.enAkñúgenaHkarEbgEckmYy RtUveKBinitü
eTAelIPaBnwgfál; (Static) nig kMlaMgkat;pþac; (Shearing Forces) GacrujEpñkNamYyén eRKOgbgÁMúecjBIKña.
- bnÞúkefr(Static Loads)KWCakMlaMgEdlRtUveKeRbIy:agyWt² ehIybnÞab;mkvaesÞIrEtefr.
]TahrN_ Tm¶n;/ bnÞúkefr rbs;RbB½n§GaKar b¤dMbUl.

- bnÞúkERbRbYl (Dynamic Loads) ³ ERbRbYleTAtameBlevla. varYmbBa©ÚlTaMg Repeat and Impact
Loads .
- Repeated Loads KWCakMlaMgEdlRtUveKykmkGnuvtþeRcIndgehIyvaGacbNþaleGayTMhM énkMlaMg
xagkñúgERbRbYl.
]TahrN_ Off-balance motor
- Impact Loads: kMlaMgEdlsgát;eTAelIeRKOgbgÁúMnig smasPaBrbs;vakñúgGMLúg
eBlxøImYy. ]TahrN_ karTmøak;vtßúF¶n;mYyeTAelIkMralx½NÐ (Floor) . kMlaMgxageRkARtUveKEbg
EckCakMlaMgBRgayesμIr (Distributed Loads) nig kMlaMgcMcMnuc(Concentration Loads) .
- Uniformly Distributed Loads: KWCakMlaMgEdlenAkñúgkarGnuvtþCak;EsþgvaRtUv)aneKcat; Tukfa
CakMlaMgEdlenAkñúgkarGnuvtþCak;Esþg.
]TahrN_ TMgn; efrénfñwm Edkrag I (Dead Weight of a rolled- Steel I beam is a good example)
- Concentrated Loads KWCakMlaMgEdlsgát;eTAelIépÞRTtUcesÞIEtminRtUveKrab;bBa©Úl ebI eRbobeFob
eTAnwgépÞTMrTaMgGs;.
]TahrN_ fñwm (Beam) EdlRTedayrt (Girder) RtUv)aneKcat;TukCabnÞúkcMcMnuc (Concentrated Loads)
eTAelIGirder .
viFIkMNt;énlkçN³bnÞúkd¾smBaØmYyepSgeTotenaHKW karkMNt;kMlaMgxageRkAEdlRtUv)an eKdak;
eQμaH Axial ecentric nig Torsional ³
- An axial load ³ KWCakMlaMgrYmmYyEdlsgát;cMG½kS ehIyEkgeTAnwgépÞmuxkat;TTwg.
- An ecentric load ³ KWCakMlaMgsgát;EdlEkgeTAnwgépÞénmuxkat; TTwg ehIyvamincMG½kS dUcenH
ehIyvaGackac;eCIgTMr.
- Torsional load ³ KWCakMlaMgrmYlEdlzitenAmincMG½kSrbs;muxkat;TTwg ehIyvaminman TisedAeTr
b¤ kñúgbøg;rbs;muxkat;enaHdUcenHvakac;eCIgTMr.
]TahrN_
- Dead Loads ³ rYmmansMPar³sMNg; sMPar³ eRbIR)as; rWk¾TMgn;epSg²eTotrbs;sMPar³enAkñúgGaKar
rYmTaMgTMgn;rbs;GaKarpÞal;EdlzitenAefrCaGcié®nþy_.

- Live Loads ³ rYmbBa©ÚlGñksñak;;enA sMPar³sMNg; sMPar³eRbIR)as; rWTMgn;epSgeTotenAkñúg GaKar
ehIyvaTMngnigRtUveKpøas;bþÚrTIkEnøgenAkñúgGMLúgGayukalkMNt;rbs;GaKar.
- Impact Loads ³KWCacMENkén Live loads EdlRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IrYmbEnßmnUv Stress nig Deflection
EdlCalT§plénkareFVIclnarbs; Live loads .
- Wind KWCabnÞúkF¶n;Gtibrmarbs;xül;Edlbk;mkelIGaKarkñúgGMLúgeBlNamYyrW vaCakMlaMgmYy
EdlbegáIteGayman Stress kñúgGMLúgeBlNamYy rWCakMlaMgmYyEdlbegáIteGayman Stress Rbhak;RbEhl
nwgkMlaMgxül;bk;enaH.
- Snow Loads KWCakMlaMgGtibrmaEdlmanGMeBIelIGaKaredaykarRbmUlpþúMKñarbs;RBilEdlekIteLIg
kñúgGMLúgeBlNamYy.
- Seismic Loads KWCakMlaMgTaMgLayNaEdlbegáIteGayman Stresses Gtibrma b¤k¾eFVIeGayGaKar
mYyxUcRTg;RTayenAkñúgeBlrBa¢ÜydI.
1>2 bnÞúk(Service Loads)
enAkñúgkarKNnaeRKOgbgÁúMrbs;GaKarGñkKNnaKYrEteRbIbnÞúkNak¾edayeGayFMCagbnÞúkxageRkam³
1>bnÞúkEdlRtUv)anKNnaenAkñúg nigtYrbs;GaKar.
2> kar):an;sμanbnÞúkGtibrma minRtwmEtBwgEp¥kelITItaMglkçx½NÐbc©úb,nñ nig KMnitedIménkareRbIR)as;
GaKarb:ueNÑaHeT bu:EnþvaRtUvEtrab;bBa©ÚlnUvehtukarN_EdlGacekIteLIgenAeBlGnaKtpgEdr. bnÞúkEdleK
min)andwgGMBITMhM rbs;vac,as;las;ehIyvaRtUveKcat;TukfaCa Statistical Vairables EdlKYrEtRtUveKeRCIserIs
eTAtamtMélRbEhlCak;lak;mYyEdlnwgminGacelIs)anenAkñúgGMLúgeBlénGayukalrbs;GaKar b¤ k¾Bwg
Ep¥kelIehtukarN_ekIteLIgkñúgry³eBl 50qñaMmþg RtUv)aneKykmkKNna. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday Interval
GacRtUveKyk 25qñaMsMrab;GaKarEdlKμanmnusSrs;enA b¤esÞIrEtKμankarb:HBal;dl;GayuCIvit b¤RtUveK
yk100qñaM sMrab;GaKarGcié®nþy_EdlpÞúkbnÞúkF¶n;ehIyGacKMramkMEhgdl;GayuCIvitmnusS nigRTBüsm,tþikñúg
karNImankardYlrlM.
kñúgkrNIEdlKμan Local or State Building Code GñkKNnaGaceRbIbnÞúkEdleKkMNt;c,as;las;enA
kñúgKMrUGaKarfñak;Cati (National Building Code) b¤tamBt’manxageRkam³
bnÞúkEdlRtUv)anykmkeRbIkñúgeRKOgbgÁúM rYmmandUcteTA bnÞúkeTal A lone b¤bnÞúkrYmKña
(Combination Load) . ]TahrN_ bnÞúkefr (Dead), Live, Impact, Earth Pressure, Hydrostatic Pressure, RBil

(Snow) Twkkk (Ice) ePøóg (Rain) xül; (wind) rW rBa¢ÜydI Constraining Forces EdlmandUcCakMlaMg én
Restriction of Thermal karrYmmaD (Shrinkage) b¤ Moisture-Change Movements b¤kMlaMgEdlbNþalmkBI
Creep, Plastic Flow, Differential settlement, Or Sidways(drift)
1>3 emKuNbnÞúk
eRKOgbgÁúMGaKarRtUvEtKNnaeGaymanlT§PaBRKb;RKan;edIm,I RTRTg;GaKaredayKμankarxUcxat
RTg;RTayhYsBIkarkMNt; b¤karxUcxaténkarrYmbBa©ÚlKña rbs;bnÞúkEdlniwgbegáIteGaymanT§iBlminl¥. kar
b:HBal;kñúgkrNIEbbenHrYmman Twkdk;elIdMbUl dIEq¥t smuRTdI nig karpøas;bþÚrTMhM. kñúgkarkMNt;lT§PaB
RTRTg;rbs;eRKOgbgÁúMmYy emKuNsuvtßiPaBsMPar³sMNg; nigkarKNnaminc,as;las;nuvlT§PaBRTRTg;RtUvEt
ykmkKitBicarNaEdr.
esovePAGaKarKMrU (Building Codes) GnuBaØatieGayeyIgeRbInUvrebobKNnaBIr Allowable- Stress
Design b¤ Load and Resistance factor Design enAkñúgkarsagsg;GaKar. kñúgviFIKNnaedayKuNbnÞúk (Service
Loads) nig emKuNsuvtßiPaB. emKuNsuvtßiPaBepSg² RtUv)aneKykeRbICamYynwgbnÞúkedayeyagelIPaBmin
BitR)akdkñúgkarKNnabnÞúk.
kñúgkarKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable-Stress Design) lT§PaBEdlGacRTRTg;rbs;vaCaFmμta
RtUvkMNt;edaybnÞúkEdlnaMeGaymankareRbH b¤kMhUcRTg;RTayrbs;vaCaFmμtaRtUvkMNt;edaybnÞúkefr Live
Wind, Seismic, Snow nigbnÞúkepSg²eTot EdlGacekItmaneLIgkñúgeBlEtmYyRtUveKbnÞúkrYmEdlRtUveK yk
mkeRbIkñúgkarKNnaStress GnuBaØati (Allowable- Stress Design) KW
1. D + L + (Lr or S or R)
2. D + L + (W or E/1.4)
3. D + L + W + S/2
4. D + L + S+ W/2
5. D + L + S + E/1.4
6. 0.9 – E/1.4
D ³CabnÞúkefr (Dead Load)
L ³ Liveloads ekItmkBIeKalbMNgénkareRbIR)as;rbs;GaKarrYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkarEbgEckCabnþbnÞab; nig
karsñak;enA.
Lr ³ Roof Liveloads
S ³ Snow Loads
R ³ Rain Loads

W ³ Wind Load
E ³ Seismic Load
Building Codes CaFmμtaGnuBaØatieGayeRbIemKuNtUc eBlEdlkar):an;sμanénkarekIteLIg énbnÞúkFM
sMebImrYmKñaenHmankMrittUc tYy:agdUcCa³ karrYmbBa©ÚlKñarvag Dead Load Gtibrma Liveload nigGtibrmarbs;
kMlaMgxül;bk; rWrBa¢ÜydI. ]TahrN_ CaTUeTAemKuNEdlmantMél 0>75 RtUveKeRbIsMrab;KNnaplbUkbnÞúkrYm
kñúgrUbmnþBI ¬2¦ dl;¬6¦ . emKuNRbePTenHGnuBaØatieGayÉkta én Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable Unit Stress)
sMrab;eRbIkñúglkçx½NÐbnÞúkenH FMCagkarKNnabnÞúkrYmtamrUbmnþ ¬1¦. Stress GnuBaØatiRtUveKKNnaRTg;RTay
hYsBIkarkMNt;EckCamYyemKuNsuvtßiPaBEdlmantMélFMCag 1.
enAkñúgkarKNna emKuNbnÞúk nig PaBFn;RbePTbnÞúkepSgKñanimYy² RtUvKuNnwgemKuNbnÞúkrbs;va
ehIytMélRtUv)aneKkMNt;eTAtamkat):an;sμanénPaBEdlGacekIteLIgénRbePTbnÞúknimYy²enaH. emKuN
bnÞúkRtUveKKitbBa©ÚledIm,IeGayRbB½n§nig eRKOgbgÁúMTaMgmUlGacRTRTg; nwgbnÞúkTaMgGs;)an. eRKOgbgÁúM
RtUv)aneKKNnaeGaylT§PaBRTRTg;bnÞúkrbs;vaFMCaglT§PaBRTRTg;bnÞúksrub. TMhMénlT§PaBRTRTg;enH KW
RtUvKNnaedayKuN The Ultimate- Load Capacity nigemKuNPaBCab; (Resistance factor) EdltMélrbs;va
pþl;eGaynUvkareCOCak;énkar):an;sμanrbs;lT§PaBRTRTg;mYy.
lkçN³vinicä½yRtUv)aneKeRbICaTUeTAdUcxageRkam³
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5( Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D+1.6(Lr or S or R)+(0.5L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D+1.3W+0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D+1.0E+(0.5L or 0.2S)
6. 0.9D6 (1.3W or 1.0E)
sMrab;yandæankEnøgRbCuMCn nigkEnøgEdlliveloads elIsBI100 lb/ft emKuNbnÞúkCaFmμta RtUveKyk
tMélÉktasMrab; L enAkñúgrUbmnþ 3/4 nig 5. sMrab;dMbUlEdlRBilGackkenAelIemKuNbnÞúkKYrEtmantMél
0>7sMrab; Snowload kñúgrUbmnþ ¬5¦.
sMrab;karKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable Stress Design) nig kMlaMg (Strength) eRKOgbgÁMúnig
smasPaBrbs;vaKYrEtRtUveKKNnaedIm,ITb;Tl;KYrEtmantMél 0>7 sMrab; Snow Load kñúgrUbmnþ¬5¦.
sMrab;karKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable Stress Design) nig kMlaMg (Strength) eRKOgbgÁMúnig
smasPaBrbs;vaKYrEtRtUveKKNnaedIm,ITb;Tl;nig kMlaMgBiessEdlekItLIgBIkarrMBa¢ÜydI.
a. 1.2 D+0.5L+Em
b. 0.9D-Em

sMrab;kMralx½NÐenATIRbCuMsaFarN³sMrab; Liveload EdlelIsBI 100psf nigsMrab;bnÞúkéncMNtrfynþ
emKuNbnÞúkRtUvmantMél 1>0 sMrab; L Em KWCakMlaMgGtibrma tamTisedk nigQr.
2>Stress and Strain
Structural Capacity or Ultimate Strength KWCaTMhMmYyEdleRbIkñúgkarvas;lT§PaBRTRTg;ral;skþanuBl
énbnÞúkedayKμaneFVIeGayeRbH rWxUcRTRTg;F¶n;F¶rdl;GaKar. edIm,Icg¥úlbgðajnUvcMnYnkMNt;énbnÞúkGtibrma
EdleRKOgbgÁúMGacRTaMRT)an tMrUvé`nkarKNna (Design Specifications) sMrab;eRKOgbgÁMúnana RtUv)aneKbegáIt
kñúgenaHmanÉktþa Stresses GnuBaØati (Allowable Unit Stress) rW Design Strengths EdlmanTMhMrbs;vaminGac
elIsBIbnÞúkGtibrmaeLIy. RTwsþIéneKOgbgÁúM (Structural Theory) pþl;nUvviFIsa®sþsMrab;KNnaUnit Stress nig
sMrab;):an;sμanPaBxUcRTg;RTay. viFIsa®sþTaMgenHnwgRtUveKelIkykmkbgðajkñúgEpñkteTAenH.
2>1Static Equilibrium
ebIeRKOgbgÁúMnig smasPaBrbs;vaGacRTRTg;nwgbnÞúk bnÞab;BImankarxUcRTRTg;bnþicbnþÜcekItmaneLIg
ehIyKμankarxUcbnþeTot BYkvaRtUvekcat;famantulüPaB (Equilibrium) .
eRkamRBwtþikarN_EbbenH kMlaMgkñúgrW Stresses Tb;Tl;y:agBitR)akdeTAnwgbnÞúk.
karsnñidænd¾mansar³sMxan;mYycMnYn RtUv)aneKTajecjBIlkçN³én Static equilibrium edayKμankar
ERbRbYl plbUkénkMlaMgxageRkATaMgGs;esμIsUnü ehIyedayKμankarvil plbUkénm:Um:g; (Moment) EdlekIt
elIgedaykMlaMgxageRkAenARtg;cMnucNamYyesμIsUnü.
sMrab;mUlehtudUcKña ebIeyIgykEpñkNamYyéneRKOgbgÁúMehIyeRbIbnÞúkelIva plbUkénkMlaMgeRkA nig
kñúgenAelIEpñkmYyenaH KWR)akdCasUnü. plbUkén Moment rbs;kMlaMgTaMgGs;k¾esμIsUnüEdr.
CaTUeTAvamanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarEvkEjkkMlaMg EdlmanGMeBIelIeRKOgbgÁúMeTACasmasPaBkMlaMg
tUc² EdlRsbeTAtamG½kSEkKñamYy dUcenHehIyvaeFVIeGaymanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarKNna.
]TahrN_ sMrab;kMlaMgEdlmanGMeBIelIbøg;mYykrNI EdleKCYbRbTHRsYlbMputenaHKW bMElgkMlaMg
TaMgGs;eGayRsbtamG½kSGab;sIus nig G½kSGredaen (Vertical) . sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdlmantulüPaB
(Structure in Equilibrium) ebI H tMNageGaykMlaMgtamTwsedk V kMlaMgtamTisQr nig M Ca Moment
énkMlaMgEdl sßitenAcMNucNamYyénbøg;/ ΣH = 0 ΣV = 0 nig ΣM = 0 .

smIkarTaMgbIxagelIenHRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IKNnaGBaØti3 enAkñúg nonconcurrent coplanar force
system.
2>2Unit Stress and Strain
edIm,IeFVIeGaydwgBitR)akdfaetI eRKOgbgÁúMmanlT§plGacRTRTg;bnÞúk)an GñkKNnaCaTUeTARtUvEt
KNna Maximum Unit Stress EdlekIteLIgedaykarkMNt;bnÞúkkñúgeRKOgbgÁúMsMrab;RbePTkMlaMgkññúg kMlaMg
Taj kMlaMgsgát; rWkMlaMgkkit ehIyeRbobeFobfaetInwg Allowable Unit Stress .
enAeBlEdlkarbnÞúkdecñH Unit stress KWefrenAelIEpñkNamYyéneRKOgbgÁúMEdleKykmkeRbIelI
Stress RtUvKNnaedayEckkMlaMgnwg épÞmuxkat. b:uEnþCaTUeTA Unit stress ERbRbYlBImYyeTAmYy. kñúgkrNIenH
Unit stress EdlzitenAcMnucNamYyénmuxkat; KWCatMélkMNt;énpleFobrvagkMlaMgkñúgelIépÞtUcNamYy nig
RklaépÞEdlvaRtUveKyktUceTA². CYnkalkñúgkarKNnaeRKOgbgÁúM Unit stress GacminEmnCacMnuccMbgEdleK
ykmkKiteT.
GñkKNnaGaccab;GarmμN_eTAelITMhMkMNt;mYyénkarxUcRTg;RTay rW Strain . kMhUcRTg;RTayeTAtam
TisedANamYy KWCakarpøas;bþÚrTaMgRsugénTMhMrbs;eRKOgbgÁúMtamTisenaH.
Unit strain eTAtamTisedANamYy KW karxUcRTg;RTaykñúgÉktþaRbEvgtamTisenaH.
enAeBlEdlbnÞúkdak;dUcenH Unit strain KWefr kñugEpñkmYyéneRKOgbgÁúMvaGacRtUveKKNnaedayEck
RbEvgénkMhUcRTg;RTayCamYyRbEvgedImrbs;va. b:uEnþCaTUeTA Unitstress ERbRbYlén Unitstress tMNagnUv
tMélkMNt;énpleFobmYy.
2>3Hooke’s Law
sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;CaeRcIn Unit strain KWsmamaRteTAnwg Unit stress, Until a certain stress, The
proportional limit is exceeded. Hooke’s Law RtUveKsÁal;tamTMnak;TMngEdlGacsesrdUcxageRkam³
Edl
f = Unit Stress
= Unit Strain
E= Modulus of elasticity
rW

dUecñHenAeBlEdl Unit stress nig Modulus of elasticity RtUveKsÁal; Unit strain RtUv)aneKsÁal;tMél
Unit stress GacnwgRtUveKKNna)an.
enAeBlEdleRKOgbgÁúMmYyRtUvrgnUvbnÞúk ehIyUnit stress minelIsBI Proportional Limit eRKOgbgÁúMnig
RtLb;eTAPaBedImvijenAeBlEdlbnÞúkRtUv)aneKdkecj. The elastic limit KWCa Unit stress FMbMputEdlGac
ekItmaneLIgedayKμankMhUcRTg;RTayCaGcié®nþy_bnSl;TukbnÞab;BIdkbnÞúkecj. sMPar³sMNg;xøHman 1 rW2
Yield Pont . TMhMTaMgenaHKWCa Unit stress enAkñúgkEnøgEdlmankarelceLIgnUvkMenInén Strain edayKμankar
ekIneLIg b¤fycuHbnþicbnþÜcén Stress . dUcenHsMPar³sMNg;bgðajnUvPaByWtrbs;va. sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;
EdlKμankarkMNt; Yield Point c,as;las; The offset yield strength RtUveKeRbICargVas;énPaByWtdMbUg ( The
beginning of plastic deformation) .
2>4Constant Unit Stress
krNIEdlsamBaØén Stess nig Strain KWCakrNIEdlkñúgenaH Unitstress nig Strain efr. ]TahrN_³
Stress EdlekIteLIgedaykMlaMgTaj rWsgát; rW Shearing Force rW bnÞúkEdleRbImþgmáal. lkçN³énkardak;
bnÞúkTaMgenHRtUveKbgðajenAkñúgrUb Figure 11 . sMrab;kMlaMgTaj nig sgát;cMG½kS eyIgyképÞmuxkat;EdlEkg
eTAnwgG½kSkNþal nig EkgeTAnwgkMlaMgsgát;. sMrab; Shearing Load épÞmuxkat;EdlzitenAkñúgbøg;kat;RtUveK
ykmkKNna. ehIysMrab; bearing load vaRtUveRCIserIsykbøg;b:HéneRKOgbgÁúMTaMgBIr.

rUb1-1 lkNrbs;bnÞk
2>5Poisson’s Ratio
enAkñúg elastic limit enAeBlEdleRKOgbgÁúMmYyrgnUvkMlaMgsgát;cMG½kSvaminRtwmEteFVIeGayxUc
RTg;RTaytamépÞbeNþayEtb:ueNÑaHeT EtvaEfmTaMgeFVIeGayxUcRTg;RTaytamépÞTTwgpgEdr. enAeRkam
kMlaMgTaj (Tension) épÞénmuxkat;rbs;eRKOgKWfycuH ehIyenAeRkamkMlaMgsgát; (Compression) vaekIneLIg
pleFobénUnit Lateral strain nwg Unit longitudinal strain RtUEtehAfa Poisson’s ratio .
sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;CaeRcInpleFobenHRtUveKyktMélesμI 0>25. sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdktMélrbs;va RtUveKsnμt
yk 0>3 .

]TahrN_ snμtfaEdkBüÜrmYyEdlmanépÞ 2in2 BüÜrTMgn; 40 Kip (40.000-1b) load . The Unit stress KW
40>000¼2 rW 20>000PSI Unit tensil strain KW 20>000¼30>000>000 rW 0>00067 in/ in . edayyk
Poisson’s Ration esμI 0>3Unit lateral strain KW -0>3x 0>00067rW a shortening of 0>00020 in/ in .
CMBUkII ³
dI nig RKwH
Soil and foundation
3
1> esckþIepþIm
1>1 emkanicdI
emkanicdI KWRtUveKkMnt;edaykarGnuvtþn_ énc,ab; nigeKalkarN_rbs;emkanic nigTwkenAkñúgkaredaH
RsaybBaðaCamYydIEdleKcat;TukCasmÖar³visVkmμ. dImanlkçN³eRcInRbePTepSg²Kña edayEp¥keTAelIkar
sikSa. ]TahrN_kñúgekSRtviTüa (agronomy) ¬karGnuvtþn_viC¢adaMdMNaM¦dIKW RtUveKkMNt;faCakMNkénrUbFatuEr:
EdlmankMeNItmkBIsMNwkfμ nigrUbFatuxniCEdlRbmUlpþúMKña eRkayBIkarrlYyénrukçCati nigstV. sMrab;Gñk
ekSRtviTüa (agronomist) dIKWCasarFatuEdlpþl;GMbilxniCedIm,IciBa©wmkarrIklUtlas;énrukçCati. b:uEnþsMrab;
visVkrEpñkdI (geotechnical engineer) dImann½yTUlMTUlayehIyGacrab;bBa©ÚlminRtwmEt agronomic material
b:uEnþvarab;bBa©ÚlpgEdrnUv sMNwkfμ epHPñMePøIg dIl,ab; lannin sand glacial material nig sMNl;epSgénkarswk
rbs;fμ.
tamFmμCativamankarlM)akkñúgkarrkbnÞat;EbgEckmYyrvagfμ nigdI. ]TahrN_sMrab;PUKBðviTU
(geologist) sarFatumYyRtUv)aneKdak;cMNat;fñak;eTAtamkMNkMeNIténfμBIeRBaHvasßitenAeRkamsßanPaBPUKBð
d¾Cak;lak;mYy b:uEnþsMrab;visVkrdIvaKYrEtRtUveKcat;cUlcMNat;fñak;dI.

1>2 visVkmμRKwH (Foundation Engineering)
RKwHRtUveKkMNt;faCaEpñkmYyén eRKOgbgÁúMEdlRTRTg;Tm¶n;rbs;eRKOgbgÁúMehIy bBa¢ÚnbnÞúkeTARsTab;
dIrW fμenAxageRkam. kñúgvisVkmμRKwH (Foundation Engineering) .emkanicdI emkanicfμ PUmivTüa nigvisμkmμeRKOg
bgÁúM tUveKeRbIkñúgkarKNna nigsagsg;RKwHGaKar rWeRKOg bgÁúM. mUldæanRKwHrbs; Foundation Engineering
KWkareRCIserIsRbePTénRKwH EdlmandUcCaRbBn½§énRKwHrak; (Shallow Foundation) rWRKwHeRCA (Deep
Foundation).
mUldæanRKwHmYyeTotén Foundation Engineering KWTak;TgeTAnwgkarKNna Parameter dUcCaliT§PaB
RTRTg;rbs;RKwHEdlmandUcCakarkMnt;RbePT nigcenøaHEdksréskñúgeCIgtag.
2> karsikSaRsavRCavelIkardæanpÞal; (field exploitation)
eKalbMNgénkarsikSaRsavRCavelIkardæanpÞal;KWedIm,Icg;dwgnUvcMnucxageRkam³
1> karyl;dwgGMBIsßanPaBPUmisa®sþTUeTAénkardæan edaysarvaCHT§iBleTAelIkarKNna nigsag
sg;RKwH. ]TahrN_ sßanPaBrbs;épÞdIPaBs¥itrbs;dI RbPBTwkRtBaMgrbg; rukçCati rock outcrops nigkarGac
ecjcUl)anénrfynþdwksmÖar³sMNg;.
2>TItaMgénkEnøgbgáb;]bkrN_eRbIR)as;dUcCaExSkabGKiÁsnInigTUrs½BÞRbBn§½TwknigRbBn½§lU.
3> lkçN³TUeTArbs;PUBsa®sþénRkLaépÞ CamYynwgkarkt;sMKal;nUvkarkekIténRsTab;dI nig sRmut
dIBIkarviPaKelIRbePTdIrWkrNIepSgeTot.
4> Rbvtþinig kareRbIR)as;kardæanrYmman Bt’manénkarxUcxat b¤)ak;Ebkrbs;sMNg;cas;² EdlbNþal
mkelIRKwH.
5> lkçN³BiessepSg²dUcCa PaBGacekIteLIgénkarrBa¢ÜydI rWkarpøas;bþÚrénktþaFmμCatimandUcCa
TwkCMnn;karrIkb¤rYmtamrdUvkMnt;nigdIsmñwk.
6> RbPBnigKuNPaBrbs;sMPar³ sMNg;enAkñúgRsukmandUcCaRKYssMrab;eFVIebtugfμsMrab;eFVIGaKar b¤pøÚv
nigTwksMrab;karsagsg;.
7> sMrab;sMNg;Tak;Tgnig smuRT b¤TenøBt’manelIkMriteCarnac nigkMBs;Twkel,ÓnéncrnþeCarnac nig
crnþTenønigTinñn½yEdlTak;TgeTAnwgHydrographic nigmeteorological.

8> karkt;RtaTuky:aglMGiténsßanPaBBIr b¤fμI niglkçN³TwkeRkamdIEdlenAkñúgtMbn;EdlGacman
T§iBleTAelIlT§PaBRTRTg;rbs;RKwH nigRbtibtþikarN_énkarsagsg;rW karCIkeRCAénRsTab;dIEdlGacCH
T§iBleTAelIkardæankñúgkrNINamYy.
9>lT§iplénkareFVIBiesaFn_elIsMNakdIb¤fμEdlRtUvnwgkarnwgkarKNnab¤sagsg;.
2>1 karsikSaelIÉksar (document Review)
Bt’manEdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;xøH² mandUcCaRbvtþiénkareRbIR)as;kardæanRtUveK)anmkBIkarsikSaelI
Éksar.]TahrN_manr)aykarN_cas;² GMBI lanning Edlcg¥úlbgðajfa kardæanGacCakMNk dIRbBn½§bgðÚrTwk
s¥úyEdleKe)aHbg;ecalnig GageRcaH GagsþúkTwkkb;kñúgdIelI b¤eRkamEdlGacb:HBal;dl; KMeragGPivDÆn_ fμI².
vaGacmanpgEdrnUvBt’manEdlTak;TgeTAnwg kareRbIR)as;elInwgeRkamdIénbMBg;Twk Edl RtUvEtCIkdak; b¤bit
KMrbenAkñúgbrievnénkardæan.
kñúgkarsikSaelIÉksarenH vamansar³sMxan;Nas;edIm,IBinitüsMPar³KMrU (reference materials)
dUcCaEpnTI PUKBðsa®sþ nigEpnTIPUmisa®sþ. EpnTIPUKBðsa®sþvamansar³sMxan;Nas;BIeRBaHvaEtgEtcg¥úl
bgðajnUv eRKaHfñak;énPUKBðsa®sþ ¬]TahrN_karxUcdI)ak;¦ nigRbePTénRsTab;dI b¤fμenAelIkardæan.
TaMgEpnTIPUmisa®sþcas;nig fIμ Gacpþl;nUvBt’mand¾mantMélGMBIkardæansagsg;. EpnTIPUmisa®sþCa
FmμtaRtUveKeRbImaRtdæan ehIybgðajTItaMgénGaKar pøÚv pøÚvCati pøÚvEdk nig kargarepSgeTotEdlTak;TgeTA
nwgsMNg;suIvil nigTidæPaBFmμCatiEdlmandUcCa eRCaH Tenø bwg qksmuRTnig eqñrsmuRT.
EpnTIPUmisa®sþGacg¥úlbgðajpgEdr nUvkEnøgénGagcg¥ÚrTwks¥úy nigGagsþúkTwk ehIyedayeRbIBN’
nig Rsemalvacg¥úlbgðajnUvkarGPivDÆn_cas; nigfμI. b:uEnþeKalbMNgsMxan;énEpnTIPUmisaRsþKWedIm,I
cg¥úlbgðajnUvnIvUdI. Bt’manenHGacRtUveKeRbIsMrab;KNna TidæPaBcMbgénsßanPaBPUmisa®sþ rbs;kardæan
nigsMrab;karsikSaBIRsTab;eRkamdI EdlmandUcCaRsTab;dIEdlGaceFVIeGayvakarvaybBa©úHRKwH RbRBitþieTA )an.
RbPBd¾sMxan;mYyeToténBt’man KWrUbPaBftBIelIGakas (aerial photographs) EdlRtUveKftBIelI
ynþehaHEdlehaHenAkMBs; nigExSbnÞat;EdleKkMNt;mYy. emIlrUbftBIelIGakasBIrCamYynwg CMnYyén
Stereoscope vapþl;nUvrUbPaB 3D énsßanPaBépÞdI. rUbPaBenHGacbgðajnUvBt’man sMxan;énPUKBðsa®sþrbs;
kardæandUcCavtþmanéndI)ak; RcaMg)ak; RbePTénTMrg;dI ¬]TahrN_pñÚkxSac;¦ (alluvial fans) dIl,ab;kMNk én
Twkkk (moraines) nig (eskers) PaBsikricrilRbePTTUeTAnig lkçN³rbs;rukçCati nigKMrUénbNþajbeNþaHTwk

(drainage patterns) . edayeRbobeFobrUbPaBBIelIGakascas; nig fμIPUKBðviTUGacsegátpgEdrnUvkarpøas;bþÚr
edayFmμCatib¤mnusSEdl)anekIteLIgenAelIkardæan.
2>2 karsikSaRsavRCavépÞeRkamdI (Subsurface Exploration )
edIm,IkMNt;nUvkarkt;RtalMGiténdI nigRsTab;fμ niglkçN³énTwkeRkamdInUvkardæan karsikSaRsavRCav
épÞeRkamdI KWCanic©CakalRtUveKelIkykmksikSa. manRbePTepSg² KñaénkarsikSaRsavRCavépÞeRkamdI
dUcCa karxYg (borings) reNþABiesaFn_ (test pits) nigkarCIkcg¥ÚrCaedIm.
karxYgeFVIeLIgedayeRbIbMBg;ragsuILaMg xYgcUlkñúgdI kñúgeKalbMNgsikSaBIlkçN³rbs;RsTab;dIxag
eRkamkarBiesaFn_enAelIkardæanpÞal; nigykdIfμI rWk¾TwkeRkamdIsMrab;eFVIBiesaFn_. reNþAxYgGacRtUveKCIkeday
éd¬]TahrN_³ CIkedaycbCIk¦ eTaHbIkñúgkarCIkFmμtaeKRtUveRbI mechanical equipment edIm,ICIkreNþA
k¾eday. eRKOgcRkeRcInRbePTRtUveKeRbIedIm,IxYgreNþA.
Auger Boring: Mechanical Auger KWCarebobCIkreNþAy:agelOn. reNþARtUveKCIkedayEdkxYgeday
eRbIsMBaFbukEdkxYgCYykñúgkarTemøaHdIrWfμ.
CaTUeTAmanEdkxYgBIrRbePT KW Flight auger nig bucket augers. CaFmμtaGgát;p©itrbs; flight KW 5cm-
12cm (2in eTA 4ft) ehIyrbs; bucket augers KW 0.3m eTA 2.4m (1ft eTA 8ft) . EdkxYgRtUveKdkecjBIreNþA
kñúgry³eBleTogTat;NamYy TnÞwmnigeBlenaHEdr dIEdlsßitenAelI Flight auger rWenAkñúg bucket auger RtUveK
ykecj.
Casing CaTUeTAKW eKmineRbIsMrab; auger boring eT ehIyreNþAxYgGacRsutkñúgeBldIRtesaH rWdITn;
rWxYgRsTab;dIenAeRkamTwk. auger KWCa]bkrN_sMrab;xYgEdlCaTUeTARtUveKeRbIsMrab;xYgdI rWfμ.
Hollow-stem flight auger; A hollow-stem flight auger manRbehagragmUlcMkNþalEdkxYgEdl
GnuBaØatieGayeyIgyksMNak;dIxageRkam)an. Hollow-stem flight auger KwdUcCaRbGb;sMrab;sMNak;dI
RtesaH b¤dITn; b¤enAeBlxYgdIeRkamRsTab;TwkeRkamdI.
Wash-type Borings eRbIdMeNIrkarrbs;GgÁFaturav EdlGacnaMykkMeTckMTIdIeGayecjBIreNþA)an.
kMeTcdIekItmkBIkarkab; mYl nigbukrbs;EdkxYg (drill bit) EdlkMTicdI b¤fμeTACabMENktUc². Casing RtUveK
eRbIedIm,IkuMeGaymankar)ak;RsutreNþAxYg.
edaysar drilling fluid ¬GgÁFaturav¦ EdleRbIkñúgeBlxYgvaGaceFVIeGaylM)ak;kñúgkarkMNat;dI nig
lM)akkñúgTTYl)an sMNak;EdlminxUcRTg;RTay.

Rotary Coring KWCa]bkrN_xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIfamBlrgVilénEdkxYgeGaydUcCaclnarbs;
GgÁFaturavedIm,IRbmUlykkMeTcdIecjBIrn§.
Percussion Drilling KWCa]bkrN_xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIsMrab;xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIsMrab;xYgTmøúH
fμrwgedIm,IEsVgyl;BIRsTab;dIxageRkam b¤edIm,IkarxYgGNþÚg. EdkxYgeFVIkardUcCadgjjÜreLIg ehIycuHedIm,I
bMEbknigkMeTcfμ.
elIsBIkarxYgenHmanviFIepSgeTot sMrab;karEsVgyl;BIRsTab;dIrYmbBa©ÚlTaMg Test pits nig trenches .
Test Pits CaerOy² KWmanragCakaer:kñúgbøg;KMehIjCamYynwgTMhMRbePT 1.2 x 1.2 m (4ft KuNnwg 4ft) .
Trenches manragEvg nigceg¥ótCaFmμtakayeday backhoe b¤ bulldozer.
tarag 6>4 bgðajBIkareRbIR)as; smtßPaBnig TMhMkMNt;rbs; test pits nig trenches.
Test Pit nig trenches pþl;nUvkarRtYtBinitüedayEPñkTeT nUvlkçxNÐénRsTab;dIxageRkam. eKk¾Gac
eRbIedIm,ITTYlnUvsMNakKMrU undisturbed éndIpgEdr. dMeNIrenHmanCIkkaydIBIxag b¤)atén Test pit b¤ trench
sMNakKMrUdI k¾GacTTYl)anBI Test pit b¤ trenches edaykarduMsgát;bBa©ÚledayédnUvbMBg; shelby, drive suILaMg
b¤bMBg;sMNakKMrUepSgeTotcUleTAkñúgdI.
Backhoe trenchesKWCaviFId¾snSMsMécénkarGnuvtþn_nUvkarRsavRCavBIRsTab;dIxageRkam. backhoe Gac
CIky:agelOnnUv trench EdlGacbnÞab;mkRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IRtYtBinitü nigBiesaFn_dIenAnwgkEnøg. sMrab;kar
sikSaRsavRCavRsTab;dIxageRkamCaeRcIn backheo trench RtUv)aneRbIedIm,IvaytMéllkçxNÐ near- surface nig
PUmisa®sþ ¬]TahrN_rhUtCMerA 15ft¦ edayreNþAxYgEdl)aneRbIsMrab;GegátlkçxNÐRsTab;dIxageRkameRCA
CagenH.
2>3 sMNakKMrUdI Soil Sampling
RbePTepSgKñaCaeRcInén KMrUdIGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IeFVICasMNakKMrUdI b¤fμEdl)anBIkarxYg.
1> Altered Soil: kñúgGMLúgeBlRbtibtþikarxYg dIGacRtUv)aneFVIeGayxusBIsPaBedImedaysar
karlay b¤edaysarkareFVI[kxVk;. ]TahrN_ RbsinebIkarxYgmin)anlagsMGatecjedIm,IeFVIsMNakKMrU enaH
sMNakKMrUdI EdlykecjBI)atGNþÚgxYgBitR)akdGacmansarFatukMeTckMTI (cutting) EdlRCuHBIRCugmçagén
GNþÚgxYg. kMTickMTIénGNþÚgxYgenH EdlRCuHFøak;eTA)atGNþÚgxYg nigminman vtþmansMrab;lkçxNÐenAnwg
kEnøg énsMNakKMrUEdlmanCMerAeRCA. kñúgkrNIepSgeTot sMNakKMrUdIGackøayCakxVk;eday sarGgÁFaturav
énkarxYg EdleRbIsMrab; Wash-type boring. sMNakKMrUvdIRbePTenH EdlRtUv)anlay b¤eFVI[kxVk;edaysar

dMeNIrkarénkarxYgKYrminRtUv)aneRbIsMrab; karBiesaFn_eTeRBaHvanwgnaMmknUvkarsnñidæan xuscMeBaHlkçxNÐ
énRsTab;eRkamdI.
dIEdlpøas;bþÚrsMeNImkñúgedaysarGgÁFaturavénkarxYg b¤kMedAénm:asuInePøIgkñúgGMLúgéndMeNIrkar én
karxYgk¾KYrRtUv)ancat;cUlkñúglMdab; altered soil. dIEdlRtUv)ansgát;bEnñneday over pushing b¤ over driving
KWCasMNakKMrUdIEdl k¾Gacat;Ca altered soil EdredaysarEtdMeNIrkarén over-pushing b¤ over –driving Gac
sgát;Twk[ecjBIdI.
2> Disturbed samples: disturbed soil KWCadIEdlRtUvcak;Bum<eLIgvijkñúgGMLúgdMeNIrkareFVI
sMNakKMrUdI. ]TahrN_ dIEdlTTYl)anBIsMNakKMrUEdlduMbBa©Úl (driven sampler) dUcCasMNakKMrUEdlbgðÚr
edaysøabRBaBIkarBiesaFn_sgát;TMluHCabTdæan (standard penetration test spilt spoon sampler) b¤duMdITaMgmUl²
Edlykmkkan;épÞdIenAkñúgRtebotEdkxYg ¬]TahrN_duMsMNakKMrU¦ Gaccat;TukCa disturbed soil. Disturbed
soil GacRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;BiesaFn_)aneRcInRbePT.
3> Undisturbed sample: eKTTYlsÁal;faKμansMNakKMrUdINaEdlGacykecjBIdIedaysßan-
PaBminxUcRTg;RTaytex©aHenaHeT. eTaHbICay:agNa Bakübec©keTsenHGaceRbIsMrab;sMNakKMrUdIEdlyk
edayviFId¾BitR)akd. sMNakKMrUdI Undisturbed sample CaerOy² KWCasMNakKMrUEdlTTYl)anedaykarruj
sgát;yWt² bMBg;EdlmanCBa¢aMgy:agesþIg ehIymancugkat;muxRsYc nigelonecjeRkAcUleTAkñúgdI. ):ar:aEm:Rt
2 CaerOy² RtUv)aneRbIedIm,IvaytMélBI disturbance potential énsMNakKMrUepSgKña KWCapleFobRbeLaHxag
kñúg nigpleFobépÞRkla.
CaTUeTAbMBg;sMNakKMrUsMrab;sMNak undisturbed soil KYrRtUvmanpleFobRbeLaHxagkñúgRbEhl1°
nig pleFobRklaépÞRbEhl 10° b¤ticCagenH. karykpleFobRbelaHxagkñúgRbEhl 1°
edIm,Ipþl;[ PaBlanecjeRkAxagkMBUlénsMNakKMrUdI nigkat;bnßyPaBkkitrvag dI nig
bMBg;sMNakKMrUkñúgGMLúgeBlén dMeNIrkareFVIsMNakKMrU.
RsTab;eRbgy:agesþIgGacRtUv)anlabenAelICaymuxkaMbitedIm,Ikat;bnßypgEdr nUvPaB kkiténépÞdI
nigbMBg;EdkkñúgGMLúgdMeNIrkareFVIsMNakKMrUBum<. eKalbMNgénkarmanpleFob énépÞ Rklad¾Tab nig
cugkaMbitRsYcKWedIm,IrMkilcUleTAkñúgdICamYynwgkarraMgsÞH nigPaBbMlas;TItictYcEdlGacekIt mantictYc
cMeBaHdI. bMBg; shelby KWRtUv)anplitedIm,I[RsbeTAtamrsovePAlMGitbec©keTs (specification) nwgRtUv)an
eRbIsMrab;sMNakKMrUdI undisturbed soil samplers .

ktþaepSgeTot CaeRcInk¾GacbNþaleGaydIRtUv)anraMgsÞ³dUcCa ³
• duMRKYsrwg b¤ cMENksMbkxügenAkñúgdI EdlGacbegáInrn§es<atenAtamxagénbMBg;sMNakKMrUkñúgGMLúg
dMeNIrkareFVIsMNakKMrU.
• karxUcxatrcnasm<½n§dIEdlbNþalmkBIkarduMjjÜrb¤rujsgát;bMBg;sMNakBum<eTAkñúgRsTab;dI.
• cMhayPayén]sμ½nkñúgGMLúgkardkykmkvijnUvbMBg;sMNakKMrU.
• kareFVIeGaykeRkIk b¤karb:HTgÁicénbMBg;sMNakKMrU kñúgGMLúgeBldwkCBa¢ÚneTAkan;bnÞb;BiesaFn_.
• kardkyksMNakdIedayrdwbrdubBIbMBg;sMNakKMrU.
• karkat;tMrwmy:ageFVsRbEhseTAtamTMhMCak;lak;sMrab;karBiesaFan_enAkñúgbnÞb;BiesaFn_.
ral;skmμPaBEdl)anerobrab;xagelIGackat;bnßyRbsiT§iPaB Stress karkat;bnßysMrab;PaBs¥itén
GnþrRKab; nigkartMerobeLIgvijénRKab;dI. sMNakKMrUdI “undisturbed” nwgGacRtUv)antMerobeLIgvijnUvRKab;dI
y:agtictYc nigGacKμankarxUcxatelIkElgEtbNþalmkBI stress relief Edlmankarpøas;bþÚrBIlkçxNÐ stress
enAnwgkEnøgeTAlkçxNÐ stress isotropic “sMNakKMrUtex©aH” . sMNakKMrUdI disturbed Gacmanrcnasm<½n§dI
EdlxUcRTg;RTayCamYynwg kartMerobRKab;dIesÞIrEtTaMgGs;. enAeBlvas;rkPaBFn;énkMlaMgkat;pþac; (shear
strength ) b¤lkçN³xUcxatRTg;RTayéndI lT§plénkarBiesaFn_cMeBaHsMNakKMrUdI undisturbed Edl)anerob
rab;xagelI)anbgðajBIlkçN³énsßanPaBenAnwgkEnøg RbesIrCaglT§plBiesaFn_cMeBaHsMNakKMrUdI disturbed
ehIyKMrUEdl)anykecjBIrn§GNþÚgxYgKYrrkSaTukenAkñúgbMBg;sMNakKMrU b¤kgsMNakKMrU. bMBg;sMNakKMrUKYr
eRsaby:agCitcugrn§Rbehag b¤kgsMNakKMrUKYreRsaby:agsBV enAkñúgRbGb;edIm,IkarBar kar)at;bg;sMeNIm
kñúgGMLúgénkardwkCBa¢ÚneTAkan;bnÞb;BiesaFn_. sMNakKMrUvdIKYrRtUv)ankt;cMNaMCamYyÉksar b¤elxKMerag
kalbriecäTénkaryksMNakKMrU eQμaHénvisVkr b¤ GñkPUKBðsa®sþEdl)anGnuvtþcMeBaHkaryksMNakKMrU
nigcMnYnénkarxYg nigCMerA.
2>4 karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæan Field testing
eKmankarBiesaFn_CaeRcInRbePT EdlGacGnuvtþn_enAeBlxYg. karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæanbI RbePT
FmμtaCageKnwgRtUv)anykmkBiPakSakñúgEpñkenH.
karBiesaFn_edaysarkarsgát;TMluHCabTdæanStandard Penetration test (SPT)
SPT KWCakarsgát;]bkrN_sMNakKMrUEdlmanCBa¢aMgRkaseTAkñúgRsTab;xSac;. ]bkrN_sMNak SPT
RtUvEtmanGgát;p©itxagkñúg (D1) = 3.81cm(1.5in) nigGgát;p©itxageRkA (D0) = 5.08 cm(2in). ]bkrN_sMNak

KMrU SPT RtUv)ansgát;cUleTAkñúgdIxSac;edaykarTMlak;duMjjYrTMgn; 63.5kg(1401b) BIkMBs;
0.76m(30in) . ]bkrN_sMNakKMrU SPT RtUv)ansgát;cUlsrubCMerA 45cm (18in)
CamYynwgkarTMlak;duMjjÜrCaeRcIndgeday )ankt;Rtaral;CMerAKMlat 15cm (6in) . karvas;]bkrN_ SPT
tMél N ¬cMnYnTMlak;ral;kMBs; ft¦ KWCaPaBFn; énkarsgát;TMluHéndIxSac;
EdlesμInwgplbUkéncMnYnénkarTMlak;EdltMrUvsgát;]bkrN_sMNakKMrU SPT elICMerA cenøaHBI 15 eTA 45 cm
¬6eTA 18in¦. mUlehtuEdlcMnYnénkarTMlak;duMjjÜrkñúgtMél N KWCaerOy² dMeNIr
karénkarxYgeRcIneFVIeGaydIxUcRTg;RTayenAnwg)aténrn§GNþÚgxYg nigRtUv)anGanenACMerA 15 eTA 45cm (6 eTA
18in) RtUv)aneCOCak;fa vatMNagl¥CageKénPaBFn;éndIxSac; enAnwgkEnøg. Tinñn½yBIxageRkamkarCab;Tak;Tg
KñaéneBlbc©úb,nñrvagénkarvas;Evg. karvas;Evg SPT tMél N GacRtUv)anCHT§iBledayktþaénkarBiesaFn_
CaeRcInnig lkçxNÐdI. ]TahrN_ TMhMRKab;RKYsbegáInPaBFn;énkarsgát; ¬dUcenHbegáIntMél N¦ edayERb
køayPaBs¥itenAkñúg]bkrN_sMNakKMrU SPT. ktþaepSgeTotEdlCHT§iBl dl;karBiesaFn_ SPT tMél N KWTwk
enAkñúgdI. vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkarrkSakMritkMBs;TwkenAkñúgrn§GNþÚgxYg [esμI b¤sßitBIelIkMritkMBs;TwkkñúgdI dUc
enAnwgkEnøg. eKRtUvkarBarTwkkñúgdIkuMeGayeLIgcUleTAkñúg)aténrn§GNþÚrxYgEdleFVIeGayxSac;RtsuHehIy
lT§plénkarrab;tMél N Tab. eRkABIlkçxNÐRKab;RKYs nigTwkkñúgdIEdl)anBiBN’naxagelI enAmanktþa
BiesaFn_epSgKñaeTotCaeRcIn EdlGacCHT§iBldl;PaBCak;lak;énkarGan SPT. ]TahrN_ karBiesaFn_
SPT tMél N GacRtUv)anCHT§iBledaysarRbsiT§iPaBénduMjjÜr GRtaénkarTMlak;duMjjÜr Ggát;p©iténrn§
GNþÚgxYgnigRbEvgéndgEdk.
Van Shear Test (VST)
SPT nig CPT RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;karCab;Tak;TgKñaénPaBFn;énkarsgát;]bkrN_¬tMél N¦ b¤rujsgát;
duMekaNCamYynwglkçN³énvisVkmμ ¬dUcCalkçxNÐdg;suIet¦éndI. pÞúymkvij karBiesaFn_ vane test KWmanPaB
EbøkKñaBIkarBiesaFn_enAnwgkEnøgenAkardæanBIeRBaHvaRtUv)anvas;edaypÞal;nUvlkçN³BitR)akdéndI PaBFn;én
kMlaMgkat;pþac;éndIdæedayKμanbgðÚrTwk.
karBiesaFn_ Vane test KWCakars‘kbBa©Úl vane muxsMEb:t 4eTAkñúgrn§GNþÚgxYg rYcbnÞab;mkrujsgát;
vane cUleTAkñúgRsTab;dIdæEdlsßitenA)aténrn§GNþÚgxYg. enAeBl vane RtUv)anrujcUleTAkñúgdIdærYcehIy
karmYlGtibrmatMrUvsMrab;bgVil Vane nigkarkat;pþac;dIdæRtUv)anrab;.

Vane GacRtUv)anpþl;PaBFn;énkarpþac;edayKμankarpþac;edayKμankarbgðÚrTwkx<s;xøaMg RbsinebI Vane
RtUv)anbgVily:agelOnxøaMgenaH. karBiesaFn_ vane test pþl;nUvlT§plEdlminGaceCOCak;)an sMrab;RsTab;
dIdæ EdlmanRsTab;dIxSac; b¤RsTab; lenses/ varved clay RbsinebIdIdæmanRKab;RKYs b¤bMENksMbkxügb:unduM
RKYs.
3> RKwH Foundation
EpñkenHniyayBIkareRCIserIsRbePTRKwH. kareRCIserIslkçN³BiessénRbePTRKwHCaerOy² QrelI
mUldæanktþaCaeRcIndUcCa³
XCMerARKb;RKan;. vaRtUvEtmanCMerARKb;RKan;edIm,IkarBareRKaHfñak;edaykarkkTwkkk. sMrab;
RKwHdUcCassrs<an CMerAénRKwHRtUvEtRKb;RKan;edIm,IkarBarnwgkarCIkBIeRkamedaykarduHlag.
YkarbraC½yénlT§PaBRTRTg;. RKwHRtUvEtmansuvtßiPaBRbQmnwg karbraC½yénlT§PaBRT
RTg;.
ZkarRsut. RKwHminRtUvRsutdac;xatEdlGacbNþal[eRKaHfñak;dl;eRKagbgÁúMTaMgmUl.
[KuNPaB. RKwHRtUvEtmanKuNPaBRKb;RKan;EdlvaminRbQmnwgPaBkan;Ety:ab;yWneLIg
dUcCakarvayRbhareday sulfate énebtugeCIgtag.
PaBFn;énkMlaMgRKb;RKan;. RKwHRtUv)anKitCamYynwgPaBFn;énkMlaMgRKb;RKan;Edlvamin
Gac)ak; b¤EbkecjBIKñaeRkambnÞúkéneRKagsMNg;xagelIEdlmanGMeBIelIva. vak¾RtUvEtsagsg;edayRtwmRtUv
edayGnuelameTAtamkarKiténesovePAlMGitbec©keTs.
]karpøas;bþÚrdIminl¥.RKwHRtUvEtGacFn;eTAnwgkarpøas;bþÚrdIEdlminl¥yUrGEgVg. ]TahrN_
sMrab;dIEdlrIkmaD ¬dI silt b¤dIdæ¦ EdlGacrIkb¤ rYmmaDnwgeFVIeGayRKwHmanclnaehIy eFVIeGayeRKagsMNg;
maneRKaHfñak;.
^kMlaMgrMBa¢ÜydI. RKwHRtUvEtGacRTeRKagsMNg;kñúgGMLúgeBlrBa¢ÜydIedayKμan clnaRsutcuH
xøaMg b¤eTAxag.

3>1 RKwHrak; Shallow Foundation
RKwHrak;CaerOy² RtUv)aneRCIserIsenAeBlbnÞúkeRKagsMNg; nwgminbeNþayeGayRsTab;dIBIxag
eRkammansMrutxøaMg. CaTUeTA RKwHrak;KWmanPaBsnSMsMécCagkarsagsg;CamYyRKwHeRCA. RbePTRKwHrak;Fmμta
RtUv)anBiBN’naxageRkam³
rUbTI 2-1 eCIgtag
eCIgtag/RKwHrYm/RKwHEvgspread footing/ combined footing and strip footing
RbePTRKwHrak;TaMgenHKWCaRbePTRKwHsMNg;FmμtaEdleRbIR)as;eRcInCageK.

rUbTI2-2 RKwHcak;eBj
RKwHcak;eBjMat Foundation
edayQrelImUldæanénkarKitesdækic© RKwHcak;eBjRtUv)ansagsg;sMrab;ehtupldUcxageRkam³
- eCIgtagEdlmanTMhMFM. RKwHcak;eBjCaerOy² RtUv)ansagsg;enAeBlplbUkénRklaépÞeCIgtag
TaMgGs;FMCagRbEhlBak;kNþalénRklaépÞRKwHsrub.
- RsTab; lenses EdlGacbgðab; b¤xUg. RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)aneRbIenAeBlNaEdldMeNIrkarrukrk
RsTab;eRkamdI bgðajfanwgmansMrutvismPaBEdlbNþalmkBIRsTab;EdlGacbgðab;)an b¤RkLúkxUgtUc²enA
BIxageRkamRKwH. RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)ancak;CaElVgeBjBIelIrn§xUgtUc² b¤RsTab; lenses Tn;exSay nigbegáIt
lkçxNÐsMrutÉksNæanCag.
- sMrutrak;. RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)anENnaMenAeBlEdlkarRKbsgát;BIelImansMrutrak;ehIyRKwHcak;
eBjRtUv)ankat;bnßysMrutdifferential.
- bnÞúkrayminesμI. sMrab;eRKagsMNg;xøH vaGacmanPaBxusKñaFMsMrab;bnÞúksMNg;EdlmanskmμPaB
enAelIépÞepSgKñaénRKwH. karRbRBwtþeTAtamkarRBmeRBogénRKwHeCIgtagGacRtUv)anRbQmeTAnwgsMrut
differential EdlFMhYsb:uEnþRKwHcak;bMeBjnwgRtUvBRgaybnÞúkrayminesμI nigkat;bnßysMrut differential .

- karedaleLIgeday hydrostatic. enAeBlRKwHnwgRtUvRbQmnwgkarehIbeLIgeday hydrostatic Edl
bNþalmkBIépÞénTwkkñúgTwk RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IFn;nwgkMlaMgedaleLIg.
Post-tensioned slab-on-grade
vaKWCaRbePTRKwHEdlsnSMsMécenAeBlKμankarkkTwkkkkñúgTwk b¤CMerAénkarRCabTwkkkTab. bMerI
bMras;FmμtaCageKénkMral Post-tensioned slab-on-grade KWFn;eTAnwgkMlaMgrIkéndI b¤enAeBlRbQmeTAnwg
sMrut differential FMCagtMélGnueRKaHsMrab;karRbRBwtþeTAtamkarRBmeRBogénkMral on-grade ¬EdlmanEdk
y:agesþIg¦. ]TahrN_kMral post-tensioned slab-on-grade CaerOy²RtUv)anENnaMRbsinebIkarRbQménsMrut
differential KWrMBwgfaFMCag 2cm(0.75in) . kMral post-tensioned slab-on-grade KWCaebtugEdlmanbgáb;
sésrEdkBYrEdleRsabeday)øasÞiky:agRkas;. eRsam)øasÞikkarBarsésrBYurBIkarb:HBal;CamYynwgebtug nig
GnuBaØati[sésrBYGacrGilkñúgebtugEdlkkrwgkñúgeBldMeNIrkarénkarTaj. CaFmμtasésrBYrmancugmçag
gab;¬bnÞHTMBk;¦ kñúgbrimaRt¬Cay¦Fñwm nigcugmçageTotEdlTTYl stress
enAbrimaRtFñwmQmedIm,IGac[ sésrBYrTTYlstress BIxagcugmçag.
RKwHrak;déTeTotshallow foundation afternatives
RbsinebIsMrutEdlrMBwgsMrab;RKwHrak;EdlesñImantMélFMeBk enaHbMNgepSgeTotsMrab;TMrRKwH b¤kareFVI
[dImanesßrPaBRtUvEtGacvaytMél.lkçN³d¾éTeTotFmμtaxøHEdlGacRtUveRbIRtUv)anerobrab;dUcxageRkam³
-BRgaydI. RbtibtþikarBRgabdI GacRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;ykecjnUvRsTab;dIEdlGachab; nig CMnYs
vijedaykarbMeBjrcnasm<½n§. CaFmμtabMNgénkarBRgabdI KWmanlkçN³snSMsMécEtmYyKt;RbsinebI
RsTab;dIEdlhab;sßitenAEk,rRsTab;dIEpñkelI nigRsTab;TwkkñúgdIsßitenABIeRkamRsTab;dIEdlGachab; b¤
RsTab; TwkkñúgdIGacRtUv)andak;eGayenAeRkamedIm,IkarsnSMsMéc.
-kardak;bnÞúkelIs. RbsinebIkardæanmanRsTab;dIsi¥t EdlGachab;enABIeRkamkardæanGacRtUv)an
dak; bnÞúkelIsedayRsTab;cak;bMeBjdak;BIelIépÞdI. karbgðÚrbBaÄr¬dUcCakarbgðÚrdUcRbeqHEdkekH
b¤karbgðÚreday xSac;¦ GacRtUv)andak;enAkñúgRsTab;dIEdlGachab;edIm,Ikat;bnßyExSénkarbgðÚr nigbegáIn
el,ÓnéndMeNIrkarbgðab;. enAeBlEdlRsTab;dIs¥itGacbgðab;)anRtUv)anTTYlnUvkarbgðab;RKb;RKan;ehIy
RsTab;EdlbMeBjelIsbnÞúk RtUv)anykecj nigsMNg;RtUv)ansagsg;.

-karbegáIndg;suIet. viFIepSgKñaCaeRcInGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IbegáIndg;suIetdIRtsuH b¤Tn;. ]TahrN_
karbgðab; vibro-flotation nig dynamic CaerOy² manRbsiT§iPaBkñúgkarbegáIndg;suIetRsTab;dIxSac;RtsuH.
eKalbMNgepSgeTotKWkarbgðab; grouting EdlCakarsgát;BnøicduMm:as grout EdlmankMras;Rkas;Nas;enAkñúg
dI EdlTaMgCMnYs nigbgðab;dIRtsuH.
-RKwHGENþk. RKwHGENþtKWCaRbePTRKwHeRCABiess EdlTMgn;éneRKagsMNg;RtUv)anføwgedayykecj
nUvdI nigsagsg;nUvkMralCan;eRkamdI.
3>2 RKwHeRCA
rUbTI 2-3 RbePT pile
RbePTénRKwHeRCAFmμtaPaKeRcInKW RKwH pile. Pile GacCaeQI ¬edImeQI¦/ EdkEdlmanmuxkat; H,
ebtugcak;rYc/ ebtugcak;enAnwgkEnøg/ ebtugEdlcak;edaysMBaF/ karbMeBjebtugkñúgbMBg; pile RbePTpSMKña.
Pile KW)anBIkarsgát;cUlkñúgdIb¤RtUv)antMeLIgenAkñúgrn§EdlxYgmun. Pile Edl)anBIkarsgát;cUlkñúgdI
CaTUeTARtUv)ancat;Tukfa CakarykecjTab b¤x<s;GaRs½yeTAnwgbrimaNdIEdl RtUvEt)anrujecjtampøÚvEdl

Pile sgát;cUl. ]TahrN_karykecjTabén Pile KWEdkmuxkat;GkSr H nig bMBg; pile EdkEdlmancugcMhr
Edlmin)anbegáItFñúkenAxagcugEpñkxagdI. ]TahrN_sMrab; pile ykecjx<s; KW Pile
EdlmanlkçN³tan;dUcCa Pile duMeQImUl b¤Pile ebtugcak;eRscmuxkat;kaernig bMBg;Pile EdkEdlman
cugbiTCit.
Pile Edlcak;enAnwgkEnøgRtUv)anbegáItedayeFVIrn§enAkñúgdI nigbnÞab;mkbMeBjrn§edayebtug. sMrab;
Bum<d¾samBaØCageK Pile Edlcak;enAnwgkEnøgmanrn§Edl)ancak;EdlRtUvcak;bMeBjedayebtug. RbsinebIdI
GaccUlkñúgrn§enaH Pile RbePT shell GacRtUv)antMeLIg. viFIenHKWCakarsgát; shell Edk b¤RbGb;eTAkñúgdI.
RbGb;GacRtUvduMeday mandrel EdlbnÞab;mkRtUvykecjehIy RbGb;RtUv)anbMeBjedayebtug. sMrab;krNI
epSgeTotRbGb;GacRtUvduMbBa©ÚleTAkñúgdI nigbnÞab;ykbnþicmþg² RtUv)anykecjBIrn§nig bMeBjedayebtug.
4> karCIkdIsMrab;eFVIRKwH Foundation excavation
eKmanRbePTénkarCIkdIepSgKñaCaeRcInEdlGnuvtþkñúgGMLúgkarsagsg;énKMerag. ]TahrN_dIGacRtUv
CIkBIreNþA b¤kEnøgnigbnÞab;mkcak;bMeBjvij. ]TahrN_epSgeTotKWkarCIkCalkçN³KnøwHkat;pþac; b¤ buttress
EdlnwgRtUveRbIedIm,IeFVIeGayCMerl b¤dIEdlRtUvrGiltamxagmanesßrPaB. ]TahrN_epSgeTotsMrab;karCIk
KWdUcxageRkam³
4>1 karCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtag Footing Excavation
esvaRbePTenHCab;Tak;Tgnwg karvas;nUvTMhMénEpñkPUKBðsa®sþ¬dUcCaCMerA nigTMhMéneCIgtag¦ edIm,I
eFVIeGayc,as;fa vaGnuelameTAtamtMrUvkarénbøg;sMNg;. esvaenHCaerOy² RtUv)anGnuvtþn_kñúgeBldUcKña nig
karRtYtBinitüedIm,IbBa¢ak;BIlkçxNÐRTRTg;.
4>2 karxYgsMrab; Pier Excavation of Piers
dUcKñanwgkarCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtag visVkrPUKBðsa®sþRtUv)antMrUvsMrab;bBa¢ak;eGayc,as;BICMerA niglkçxNÐ
RTRTg;én Pier. rUbTI2>4 bgðajBICMh‘anFmμtakñúgkarsagsg;énkarxYg pier.

rUb 2-4 CMha‘nFmμtakñúgkarsagsg;énkarxYgpier
4>3 karCIkdIcMhr open excavation
karCIkdIcMhr KWCakarCIkdIEdlmanCMerlxagmanesßrPaB b¤minRtUv)anTb;Tl;.
4>4 karCIkdIedaymanCnÞl; braced excavtion
karCIkdIedaymanCnÞl;KWCakarCIkEdlEpñkxagRtUv)anTb;edayeRKagbgÁúMTb;dI. rUbTI 2-5 bgðajBI
RbePTFmμtaénRbBn½§Tb;nwgkarCIkdIedaymanCnÞl;
5> viFIbegáInsßanPaBRTRTg;dI Improvement methods
5/1 karBRgabdI Grading
enAeBlkardæansMNg;CaeRcIncab;epþImedaydITeT CMh‘anTI1sMrab;kardæansagsg;eFVIkarFmμtaCab;
Tak;Tgnig karBRgabdIénkardæan. karBRgabdIKW CadMeNIrkarEdlmankarCIkkarcak;bMeBj b¤bnSúMénkargar
enH. dMeNIrkarénkarBRgabFmμtaGacrYmbBa©ÚlnUvkarerobrab;xøHb¤TaMgGs;³

rUb2-5 RbePTFmμtaénRbBn½§Tb;dInigkarCIkdIedaymanCnÞl;
Eeasement
CMha‘ndMbUgéndMeNIrkarBRgabKW kMNt;TItaMgéneRKOgeRbIR)as;enAkardæan nig easement . CaerOy²
eRKOgeRbIR)as;enAkardæan nig easement RtUvkarBarcaM)ac;EdlvaminGaceRKaHfñak;kñúgGMLúgeBlRbtibtþikar
BRgabdI.
sMGat/e)as/nigQUsrMelIg/Clearing, brushing and grubbing
sMGat e)as nigQUsrMelIg KWCaskmμPaBykecjnUvedImrukçCati¬dUcCa/ esμA/ éRB kem<at/ edImeQI
nigRbePTdMNaMRsedogenH¦ tamn½yemkanic. vamansar³sMxan;EdlkaksMNl;TaMgenHRtUv)anykecjBIkar
dæannigmindak;enAkñúgkarbMeBjCam:assMrab;eRKagsMNg;EdlbgánUveRKaHfñak;.

kare)assMGat
dMeNIrkarBRgabdIenHKW edaHRsayCamYynwgkarykecjnUvsarFatuEdlminsaksmnwgRTRTg;enAkar
dæan dUcCadIl,b;EdlRtsuH b¤manrn§es<at/ collunvium, rukçCatiBuk/ vtßúesμakeRKaK nigkarbMeBjEdlminGac
bgðab;)an.
karkat;CakaM²¬tMbn;CMerlPñM¦ Benching (Hillside areas)
karkat;CakaM² KWCakarCIkCakaM² EdlmankMritkMBs;bnþbnÞab;eTAkñúgsarFatuEpndIEdlenABIelIfñak;kaM
RtUv)anbMeBjedaysarFatubMeBj.
canyon subdrain
Subdrain KWCabMBg; b¤RbB½n§bgðÚrTwkEdldak;fμ RKYs b¤sarFatuRsedogKña dak;kñúgcg¥Úr canyon b¤
RbLaybgðÚrTwkcas;.
bnÞab;BIkardak; subdrainrYcehIy karbMeBjrcnasm<½n§RtUv)andak;BIelIkMBUl subdrain.
karP¢ÜrnigkarbMhab;vij(scarifying and recompaction)
sMrab;tMbn;rabesμIEdlKμankarCIkkat;CakaM² karP¢Ür
nigkarbgðab;eLIgvijénépÞdIRtUv)anGnuvtþeday ]bkrN_bgðab;kñúgeKalbMNgedIm,ITTYlnUvPaBs¥itl¥rvagsar
FatuenAnigkEnøgnwg sarFatucak;bMeBjfμI.
dMeNIrkarBRgabdIrdwbrdubedaykat;nigbMeBjCut and fill rough grading operation
RbtibtþikarBRgabdIrdwbrdubTak;Tgnwgkarkat;sarFatudIBIkEnøgx<s;nig bgðab;sarFatucak;bMeBjkñúg
tMbn;Tab kñúgeKalbMNgBRgabdIeGay)anrabesμI. skmμPaBepSgeTotGacRtUv)anGnuvtþkñúgGMLúgRbtibtþikar
BRgabdIrdwbrdubdUcCa³
- relIgb¤ )aj;bMEbkduMfμ.bMEbkduMfμFM²GacRtUvykecjBIkardæanb¤dak;enAeRkArgVg;kargar.
- PaBpøas;bþÚrKñaénkarkat;nig bMeBj. skmμPaBenHKWsßitenARTnab;sMNg;EdlmçagRtUvkat;cuHeRkam
rhUtdl;b:HRsTab;FmμCati b¤fμ enAeBlEdlEpñkmçageTotRtUv)ancak;bMeBj. viFImYysMrab;edaHRsayCamYy
nwgkarpøas;bþÚrKñaénkarkat;nig karbMeBjKWCIkEpñkEdlkat;[hYskMritEdlRtUvkat;rYceTIbcak;bMeBjeday
sarFatucak;bMeBj.
- kareFVIeGayCMerlmanesßrPaB. ]TahrN_sMrab;kareFVIeGayCMerlmanesßrPaBedayeRbIsarFatudI
rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkareFVIeGaymanesßrPaBcak;bMeBj/ buttress fill/ drainage buttress nig KnøwHénkarkat;pþac; (shear
key) .]bkrN_xagelIKYrRtUv)aneRbICamYynwg RbBn§½ backdrain.

- karbMeBjCMerl. enAeBlbegáItkarbMeBjCMerl vamankarkarBi)akkñúgkarbgðab;CayxageRkAén
m:asbMeBj. BIeRBaHvaKμansMBaFTb;xag dIGaceRClFøak;cuHEdlmin)anbegáIndg;suIet. edIm,IedaHRsay
sßanPaBEbbenH CMerlGacRtUv)ansagsg;hYsTMhM ehIybnÞab;mkkat;ykvijmkdl;Kl;Edl )anbgðab;.
viFId¾l¥bMputTI2d¾éTeTot KWeRbIdMeNIrkarsagsg;EdlmansarRbeyaCn_dUcCa bec©keTs back-rolling
b¤edayeRbI bulldozer edIm,I track walk tamCMerl.
- rMlwkeLIgvijBIdMeNIrkarBRgabdI. ral;kargarBRgabdITaMgGs;manPaBEbøkKña nigGacmankarpøas;
bþÚrRbtibtþikarBRgabdIedayQrelImUldæanlkçxNÐkardæan.
karBRgabdIm:t;Fine Grading
enAeBlEdlkarBRgabdIrdwbrdub)ancb;sBVRKb;ehIy karBRgabdIm:t;RtUv)anGnuvtþedIm,ITTYl)annUv
kMritkMBs;cugeRkay EdlGnuelameTAtambøg;BRgabdI EdlmanPaBsuRkit.
karkarBarCMerlnigRtYtBinitükarhUreRcaHslop protectin and erasion control
eTaHbICaFmμtavaminEmnCakarTTYlxusRtUvrbs;Gñkem:AkarBRgabdIk¾eday eRkayBIkarBRgabdIm:t;)an
bBa©b; karkarBarCMerl nig]bkrN_RtYtRtakarhUreRcaHCaRbcaMRtUv)antMeLIg.
karCIksñamePøaHTrench excavation
sñamePøaHéneRKOgeRbIR)as;RtUv)anCIkedIm,ICakartMrg;énesckþIesñIpøÚv nigRsTab;sMNg;sMrab;tMeLIg
eRKOgeRbIR)as;enAkardæan. karCIknig karbgðab;énsñamePøaHCaerOy² CaEpñkéndMeNIrkarBRgabdI.
enAeBlExSéneRKOgeRbIR)as;RtUv)antMelIg karP¢Ürnig karbgðab;RTnab;RKwHpøÚvRtUv)anGnuvtþnig sarFatu
RKwHRtUv)andak;ehIybgðab;.
karCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtagnigRKwHFooting and Foundation excavatin
eTaHbICaFmμtavaminEmnCaEpñkéndMeNIrkarBRgabdI EpñkRKwHnig eCIgtagRtUv)anCIkCabnþ.
5>2 eKalkarN_énkarbgðab; Compaction Foundation
Epñkd¾sMxan;énkarBRgabdIénkardæanCaerOy² rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkarbgðab;sarFatubMeBj. karbgðab;KWCa
karbegáIndg;suIeténGgÁFatubMeBjtamviFIemkanicdMeNIrkarrUbénkareFVIeGaydImansßanPaBhab;enHGacbegáIn
PaBFn;énkMlaMgkat;pþac; kat;bnßykarEdlGachab; kat;bnßyPaBRCabTwkéndI. karmanktþaeKal4 Edl
b:HBal;dl;karbgðab;³
RbePTdISoil Type

dIminmanlkçN³)øasÞikdUcCaxSac; nigRKYs GacRtUvbgðab;edayRbsiT§iPaBedayeRbIdMeNIrkar bgðab;
RbePTrMj½r. dIEdlmanlkçN³)øasÞik¬]TahrN_manPaBs¥it¦ dUcCa sift nigdIdæKWmankarBi)akkñúgkarbgðab;
nigtMrUveGaymandMeNIrkarbgðab;RbePTlujb¤buinRbsBV.
RbsinebIdImanRKab;FMhYsxñat dUcCaduMRKYsfμFM nig fμ cabble GacnwgeRCotcUlCamYynwgdMeNIrkar
bgðab;nigkat;bnßyRbsiT§iPaBénkarbgðab;RKab;dIm:t;Cag.
sarFatuEdlmanlMdab;RKab;Meterial Gradation
dIEdlmanTMhMRKab;tamlMdab;l¥CaTUeTAGac nwgbgðab;bBa©ÚlkñúgsßanPaBENnCag dIEdlmanlMdab;
RKab;minl¥EdlmanTMhMRKab;esÞIrEtesμIKña.
TwkxagkñúgWater content
Water content KWCa):ara:Em:RtsMxan;kñúgkarbgðab;dI. TwkGacCaeRKOgrMGilRKab;dIEdlCYyeGayvarGil
cUlkñúgkartMerobeGayENn. eTaHCay:agNa TwkeRcIneBk eFVIeGaydIkøayCaEq¥tTwk nigCaerOy² Bi)akkñúg
karbgðab;. eKmankMritkMBUlén Water content EdldIGacbgðab;cUlkñúgsßanPaBENnCageK Edlpþl;
edayfamBlénkarbgðab;.
RbePT Optiimum moisure content (Modified Proctor) sMrab;RbePTdIepSgKñaKW erobrab;xageRkam³
-dIdæEdlmanlkçN³)øasÞikx<s; (CH): Optimum moisture content 18%
-dIdæEdlmanlkçN³)øasÞikTab (CL): Optimum moisture content 12% eTA 18%
-xSac;manTMhMCalMdab;l¥(SW): Optimum moisture content 10%
-RKYsEdlmanTMhMCalMdab;l¥ (GW): Optimum moisture content 7%
RbePTdIxøHGacnwgmanTMnak;TMngedaykMr CamYynwgkarbgðab;eday Water content.]TahrN_ Open-graded
gravel nig clean coarse sand KWmansPaBRCabTwkEdlTwkGacbgðÚrecjy:agRsYlBIdI b¤CMrujecjeRkAeday
dMeNIrkarénkarbgðab;. dIRbePTenHCaerOy²GacRtUvTukeGaysßitenAkñúgsßanPaBs¶ÜtrYcehIyrMj½reGaycUl
tMerobRKab;xSac;eGayENnaM.

CMBUkIII³
eRKagsMNg;ebtugmanq¥wgr)aeEdkBRgwgnig sMPar³ebtug
Reinforcing bar concrete sturcture and concrete meterial
3
1> sMPar³suIm:g;t_Cementitious material
sMPar³suIm:t_rYmmanplitplCaeRcInEdlRtUv)anrlayCamYynwgTwk b¤sarFaturavd¾éTxøHeTot b¤
TaMgBIr edIm,IbegáIt)anCakMe)areRbg (cementing paste) EdlGacbegáItb¤ eFVIBum<enAeBlvaenACalkçN³)øasiÞk
b:uEnþva nwgkøayeTACaTMrg;rwgmaM. enAeBlxSac;RtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgkMe)areRbg vabegáIt)anCakMe)ar)ayGr.
karcUl pSMénRKYs nigxSac; eTAkñúgkMe)areRbgvakøayeTACaebtug.
1>1 RbePTénsMPar³suIm:g;t_ Type of cementitious meterials
eKmansuIm:g;t_CaeRcInRbePT ehIyviFIénkarcat;cMNat;fñak;k¾eRcInEdr. viFIénkarcat;fñak;cMNat;fñak;
mYyEdlsamBaØCageKbMput KWkarcat;cMNat;fñak;edaysarFatupSMKImI EdlCaGñkTTYlxusRtUvsMrab;kareFVIkar
nigeLIgrwgénsuIm:g;t_. enAelIeKalkrN_enH suIm:g;t_suIlIkat (silicate) nig GaluymINat (aluminate) Edl
kñúgenaHPñak;gareFVIkar (setting agent) KWkal;süÚmsuIlIkat (calsium silicate) nigkal;süÚmGaluymINat
(calcium aluminate) KWCaRkumEdlsMxan;CageKsMrab;suIm:g;t_TMenIb (modern cement) .rYmbBa©ÚlkñúgRkumenHKW
lanning/ aluminous nigsuIm:g;t_FmμCati (natural cement) .
fμkMe)ar (lime) EdlkñúgenHPaBeLIgrwg KWbNþalmkBIkarbmøas;énGuIRduksuItkmμeTACa carbonate Edl
RtUv)aneRbICadMbUgy:agTUlayCasMPar³suIm:g;t_EtmYyKt; b:uEnþkareFVIkarnig PaBeLIgrwgyWtrbs;vaminRtUvKña
nwgtMrUvkarénsuIm:g;t_TMenIb. dUcenHtYnaTICacMbgrbs;vasBVéf¶ KWlkçN³ Plastic én Harsh cement nigbEnßm
resilience eTAelI)ayGr b¤stucco. KuNRbeyaCn_énkareRbIR)as;fμkMe)arKWPaBeFVIkaryWtrbs;va)anCMrujnUvkar
Büa)al nigkarCYsCulsñameRbHdUcséssk;.

cMNat;fñak;énsuIm:g;t_epSgeTotKW )anBIkarpSMénmñagsila calcined nigplitplTak;Tgnwgva. suIm:g;t_
mñagsilaRtUv)aneRbIy:agTUlaysMrab;kMe)arbUkxagkñúg nigsMrab;plit board nig block b:uEnþPaBGacrlay)an
énmñagsila)ankarBarxøÜnva BIkareRbIR)as;sMrab;sMNg;EdlRbQmnwgGakasFatud¾éT b:uEnþl¥bMputsMrab;
GakasFatuekþA.
suIm:g;t_G‘uksuItkørIt KWCacMNat;fñak;énsuIm:g;t_BiessEdlmanlkçN³xusFmμta. tMélrbs;va)an
hamXat; kareRbIR)as;TUeTAebIeFobCamYynwgsuIm:g;t_EdlefakCag b:uEnþþsMrab;kareRbIR)as;CalkçN³Biess
dUcCaplitplkMralkarBarePøIg (sparkproof floor) eKminGacRbdUc)aneT.
suIm:g;t_sMrab;rabdæ b¤suIm:g;t_)ayGrRtUv)aneRbIy:agTUlMTUlayedaysarEt PaBgayRsYlrbs;va.
CaTUeTAenAeBlvaRtUv)anlayedaysuIm:g;t_mYyRbePTkñúgcMeNamsuIm:g;t_Edl)anerobrab;xagelICamYynwgTwk
fñaMKImIxøHvasmnwgTTYlnUvkarcab;GarmμN_BiessedaysarPaBsnSMsMécrbs;va.
sMPar³suIm:g;t_epSgeTotdUcCa polymer/ fly ash nig silica fume GacRtUveRbIsuIm:g;t_CMnYssMrab;ebtug.
Plomer KWCa Plastic EdlmanRcvak;mU:elKulEvg. ebtugEdllayedaysuIm:gt;RbePTenHman KuNPaB
x<as;CagebtugedaysIum:g;t_Fmμta.
Silica fume EdlRtUv)ansÁal;Ca microsilica EdrenaHKWplitplsMNl;BIkardutedayLFñÚrGKÁisnI
(electric- arc funaces) . silica manRbtikmμCamYynwgfμkMe)arbegáIt)anCasMPar³suIm:g;t_enAkñúgebtug. bMENk
énfume manGgát;p©itEt 1° énbMENkGgát;p©itsuIm:g;t_.
1>2 suIm:g;t_Br½ELn (Portland Cement)
smasFatusMxan;mYy ¬fμkMe)ar (Cao), Edk(Fe2o3), silica (Sio2) nig alumina (Al2O3) ¦ nigsmasFatu
bnÞab;bnSM2eTot ¬mñagsila (CaSO4-2H20) nig magnesia (MgO) ¦ KWCavtßúFatuedIm. RbePTsarFatu
calcareous (CaO) )anmkBIfμkMe)ar (limestone), calcite, mail b¤fμPaCn_ (shale) nigxSac; (sand) . sarFatu
argillaceous( SiO2 nig Al2O3) )anmkBIkarTajykBIdIdæ ¬Clay¦/ fμPaCn_¬Shale¦ nigxüac; (Sand) .
sarFatuEdleRbIsMrab;plitRbePTsuIm:g;t_Cak;lak;mYy KWGaRs½yeTAnwgTItaMgeragcRkplit nigPaBEdl
Gacrk)annUvvtßúFatuedI.
suIm:g;t_B½rELnGacplitBIplitpl ]sSahkmμCaeRcInRbePT. kñúgkarplitsuIm:g;t_dMbUgvtßúFatuedIm
RtUv)anykecjBIEr:rYcehIykineGayeTACaem:SAmunnwglayRcbUkCamYynwgsmasFatuEdlerobcMCamuneRsc.
karlayRcbUkKW eFVIeLIgedayLdutkMedAEdlvilenAEpñkxagcugx<s;CageK edaykMedABI2600 eTA 3000 º
F

EdldutedayeRbg ]sμ½n b¤famBlFüÚgfμ. edaysarkarplitsuIm:g;t_KWCa dMeNIrkarplitEdlRtUvkarfamBl
d¾sMebIm ]bkrN_kMedA nigbMerIbMras;d¾éTeToteRkABI RbPBn§n³ dUcCaC½rekAs‘Ucas;²
RtUv)aneRbIedIm,Ikat;bnßyéfø n§n³. ¬kardutekAs‘Ukg;pþl;kMedAedIm,Iplit Clinker nigdutExSRkv:at;
Edkpþl;[FatupSMénEdk¦. kareFVI[ sItuNðPaBeLIgx<s;KW edIm,IFatuKImIénvtßúFatuedIm rlaycUlKña
begáIt)anCaduMtUc²rwgEdleKehAfa clinker. bnÞab;BITukeGayRtCak; duMtUc² clinker RtUv)andak;eGayqøgkat;
ball mill nigkinbMEbkeTACaPaKl¥itepH Edl PaKl¥itTaMgenHnwgRtUvErgqøgkat;kERBa¢gelx 200 (75µm)
CaBiess. kñúgGMLúgeBlenHkarkinbMEbk sarFatumñagsilaRtUv)anbEnßmkñúgbrimaNd¾tictYcedIm,IRtYtRtanUv
sItuNðPaBnig Fanadl;kareFVIkarénsuIm:g;t_ eTogTat;. sMPar³EdlRtUvqøgkat; ball mill KWCasIum:g;t_ lanning.
CaFmμtavaRtUv)an lk;CakBa©b;suIm:gt_ EdlmanTMgn;941b.
ebtugEdlFmμtaCageKeRbIsMrab;suIm:g;t_ lanning KWCasMPar³saMjauMEdlmanrYm suIm:g;t_ lanning RKYs
xSac; Twk nigTwkfñaMKImI nig Er:epSgeTotEdlGacrk)an. kareRbIR)as;suIm:g;t_ lanning EtÉgKWkMrNas;EdleRbI
sMrab;dUcCa)ayGrsuIm:g;t_sMrab;bMeBj Wellhole b¤bMeBj fine grout . dUcenH vamansarsMxan;Nas;kñúgkar
RtYtBinitüTMnak;TMngrvaglkçN³epSg² énsIum:g;t_ lanning nigT§iBld¾manskþanuBlrbs;vaeTAelIebtugcug
bBa©b;. CaTUeTAebtugsIum:gt;B½rELnRtUv)aneRCIserIssMrab;kargarsMNg;eRKagBIeRBaH edaysarPaBFn;én
kMlaMg nigPaBeRbIR)as;)anyUrGEgVgrbs;va. PaBFn;énkMlaMgKWGacvas;)any:aggay nigGaceRbIsMrab;Ca
smasPaBcg¥úlbgðajeday pÞal;CalkçN³TUeTAénPaBeRbIR)as;)anyUréneRKagTaMgRsug. PaBeRbIR)as;)an
yUrGEgVgCak;lak;minGacvas; )anedaygayeT b:uEnþvaGacbBa¢ak;y:agc,as;edaykarRtYtRta énlkçN³KImI
énsuIm:g;t_niglkçN³fμbMEbk.
1>3 suIm:g;t_GaluymIj:Úm Aluminous Cement
l,ayénvtßúFatualuminous nig calcareous ¬CaTUeTA bauxite nigkMe)ar ¦ RtUv)anerobcMedaykarrMlay
cUlKñanig karkinbMEbkénplitplpÁÜb edIm,IeGay)anCaemSAm:t;.
suIm:g;t_enHRtUv)ankMNt;lkçN³edaylkçN³ énkarqab;rwgqab; nwgPaBFn;énkMlaMgeLIgx<s;enAeBl
EdlvaGayux©IenAeLIy.
enAeBlEdlbrimaNkMedAeRcInRtUvedaHElgy:agelOnedaysuIm:g;t_ aluminous kñúgGMLúgeBl
GuIRdatkmμ GñkKYrRbytñ½kuMeRbIsuIm:g;t_dak;bBa©ÚlkñúgeBlEdlkMedAminGacrsay. CaTUeTA eKminR)afñadak;

ebtugsuIm:gt¾ aluminous eTAkñúg lift Edlx<s;Ca 12Guin ebIeTaHbICasItuNðPaBekIneLIgvaGacbNþaleGay
ebtugcuHexSayPaBFn;CaxøaMg.
suIm:g;t_ aluminous manPaBFn;eTAnwgskmμPaBénTwks‘ulpatxøaMgCagsuIm:g;t_ lanning. vaemIlBIxag
eRkAeTAdUcCamanPaBFn;nwgkarvayRbharedayTwkEdl mansarFatuQøanBan carbon dioxide b¤GasuItEr:
exSayxøaMgCasuIm:g;t_suIlIkat. eKalkarN_énkareRbIR)as;vaenAkñúgebtug KWenAeBlEdlPaBFn;énkMlaMg
x<s;qab;CaGtßRbeyaCn_ b¤edayPaBFn;éns‘ulpatrbs;va nigenAeBlEdl tMélbEnßménsuIm:g;t_ minEmnCa
ktþa sMxan;.
bMerIbMras;epSgeToténsuIm:g; aluminous KWrYmpSMCamYynwg firebrick edIm,IbegáItCaebtugFn;nwgkMedA
(refractory concrete) . enAeBlEdlsItuNðPaBekIneLIg karykFatuTwkecjBIplitplGuIRdatkmμGacekIt
eLIg. TIbMput smasFatuenHbegáItCa ceramic bond CamYynwgfμbMEbk.
1>4 suIm:g;t_FmμCati Natural Cements
sIum:g;t_FmμCatiRtUv)anbegáIt edaykarduteGayeTACapHedayFmμCatinUvl,ayEdl)anekItBIsarFatu
calcareous nig argillaceous enAsItuNðPaBeRkamGVIEdl sintering ykmkeRbIkar. enAeBlEdlsuIm:g;t_FmμCati
RtUv)andkecjBIvtßúFatuEdlekIteLIgedayFmμCatinig KμankarxMRbwgNamYyRtUv)aneFVIeGayEktMrUvsmasPaB
TaMgsmasPaB niglkçN³ERbRbYllμmy:agTUlMTUlay. suIm:gt_FmμCatixøH GaclkçN³esÞIrEtdUcKñanwg
suIm:g;t_ lanning suIm:g;t_FmμCatiepSgeTotmanPaBexSayxøaMgCag. suIm:g;t_FmμCatiRtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAenAkñúg
kMe)ar)ayGr(masonry mortar) nigeRbICaTwkfñaMKImIenAkñúgebtugsuIm:g;t_lanning.
1>5 kMe)ar Limes
kMe)arenHRtUv)anbegáItCaTUeTAedaykal;süÚmG‘uksuIt (CaO) EdlkekIteLIgCaFmμCatienAkñúgfμkM)ar
(limestone) / fμm:ab (marble), chalk, coral nigsMbkxüg (Shell) .sMrab;eKalbMNgsMNg;GaKar vaRtUveRbICa
hiefly enAkñúgkMe)ar)ayGr.
Hydaulic lime
kMe)arenHbegáItBIkarduteGayeTACaepHénfμkMe)arEdlmansarFatu silica nig aluminia enAsItuNðPaB
d¾xøI énkarrMlaybBa©ÚlKñaEdleTIbnwgcab;maneLIg EdlbegáItCa kMe)aresrIRKb;RKan; edIm,IGnuBaØatidl;
GuIRdatkmμ nigkñúgeBlCamYyKñabeBa©jnUvkal;süÚmsuIlIkatRKb;RKan;EdlmineFVIGuIRdatkmμedIm,I[Ca em:SAs¶Üt
lkçN³ hydraulic rbs;va.

edaysarEtkarpSMy:agTabénsuIlIkat nigkMe)ary:agx<s; kMe)ar hydraulic manTMnak;TMngy:agexSay.
eKrkeXIjkareRbIR)as;CaeKalkarN_enAkñúgkMe)ar)ayGr. kMe)arGuIRdUlItmansuIlIkateRcInCag10° nwg
kkenAeRkamTwk.
Quicklime
enAeBlEdlfñkMe)arRtUvdutkMedAenAsItuNðPaBhYsBI 17008F
sarFatu]sμ½nkabUnDIGuksuItnwgRtUv )andkecj nigplitplrwgEdlenAsl;KW Quicklime.
CaBiessvaman]sμ½nkal;süÚmGuksuIt nigm:aej:süÚm
GuksuItbUknwgsarFatuminsuT§dUcCasuIlIkatGuksuItEdkGuksuIt nig GaluymIjÚ:mGuksuIt. CaFmμta sarFatu
minsuT§RtUv)ankMNt;eGayticCag5°.RbsinebIeRcInCag10°plitplenHGackøayCakMe)ar hydraulic.
QuicklimeRtUv)aneKsÁal;fa vaman2cMNat;fñak; KWkal;süÚmx<s; (high-calcium) nig dolomitic.
Quicklime Edlmankal;süÚmx<s;CaFmμtamanm:aejsüÚmG‘uksuItticCag5°. dolomitic quicklime CaFmμta
manm:aejsüÚmBI35° eTA 40°. Quick tictYcEdlmaneKrkeXIjfa ma nm:aej:süÚmG‘uksuItBI 5°eTA35°
EdleKehAfa magnesian lime. lkçN³d¾RbesIrén quicklime KWsmtßPaBénkarlayCamYyTwk. enAeBl
quick lime RtUv)anlay 2 eTA 3 dgénbrimaNTwkeFobCamYynwgTMgn;rbs;va RbtikmμKImIcab;epþImekItman.
kal;süÚmGuksuItpSMCamYyTwkbegáIt)anCakal;süÚmGuIRduksuIt ehIykMedARKb;RKan;RtUv)anbegáItCalMdab;
edIm,IeFVI eGaym:asTaMgGs;RtUvBuH. CalT§plplitplénkarbMEbkFatu kal;süÚmGuIRduksIuty:agesþIg
RtUv)anGENþtkñúg elIépÞTwk ¬nigm:aej:süÚmGuksuIt b¤GuIRduksuIt RbsinebI dolomitic RtUv)aneRbIR)as;va¦.
enAeBlRtCak; GgÁFatum:as;Bak;kNþalrav (semifluide) rwgeTACadIElgRbkdedaysgÁt;PaB RtUv)ancUkeLIg
edayEb:l b¤ekIb dak;Fug. dIElg Quicklime layTwkenH enAeBlRtCak;ehIyeKcUlcitþykeTAErg
EdlCasMPar³EdlRtUveRbIR)as;sMrab;sMNg;. Quicklime KYrEtgEtRtUv)andak;layTwkeGaysBV.
TinñpléndIElgvaERbRbYl GaRs½yelIRbePTén Quicklime kMritdWeRkénkardutkMedA niglkçN³énkar
layTwk nigCaFmμtaTTYl)an 70 eTA 100 ft KIbéndIElgelI quickliem 1 ton. eKalkarN_énkareRbIR)as;
dIElgKWenAkñúgkMe)ar)ayGr enAkEnøgEdlvamantMéléRkElg edaysarEtkMrit)øasÞikrbs;vax<s; b¤PaBgay
RsYleFVIkarrbs;vacUlrYmenAkñúg)ayGr. vak¾RtUv)aneRbIkñúgeBldUcCaTwkfñaMKImIenAkñúgebtugEdr edIm,IbegáIt
PaBgayRsYleFVIkar. vak¾RtUv)aneRbIenAkEnøgxøHdUcCa RsTab;kMe)arbUkbegðIyEdr
EdlKuNsm,tþid¾l¥rbs;va)anmkBIkMrit)øasÞikd¾x<s;rbs;va.
Mson’s hydrated lime

hydrated lime RtUv)anerobcMBI quicklime edaykarbEnßmnUvbrimaNkMNt; énTwkeTAlIva. bnÞab;BI
GuIRdatkmμbBaÄb;edIm,IvivtþkMedA plitplCalT§plKWCa emSAm:t;s¶Üt. bnÞab;mkvaRtUv)ancMnat;fñak;edayvIFI
aiz-classification edIm,IykecjnUvTMhMRKab;l¥itEdleKminR)afñacg;)anehIy manTMhMFMCagxñat ehIyRckkñúg
fg;EdlmanTMgn; 50lb. vaEtgEtCaplitplEdlplitedayeragcRk EdlcMENkÉdIElg quicklime
PaKeRcInEtgEtCaplitplEdl)anBIkarlayenAnwgkEnøgkargar.
Mason’s hydrated lime KWCa hydrated lime EdlsmRsbeRbICamYykMe)ar)ayGr kMe)arbUkRsTab;
base-coat nigebtug. vacaM)ac;GnuvtþtamsmasPaBén Quicklime. hydrated lime
Edlmankal;süÚmx<s;RtUv )anpSMeLIgCadMbUgedaykal;süÚmGuIRduksIut. hydrated lime dolomitic
FmμtaRtUv)anpSMeLIgedaykal;süÚm GuIRdúksuItbUknwg m:aej:süÚmGuIRduksuIt.
lkçN³)øasÞikénkMe)ar)ayGrEdleFVIBI mason’s hydrated lime Fmμta ¬RbePT N¦ KWmanlkçN³mFüm.
vamanlkççN³l¥RbesIrCagkarlayedaysuIm:g;t_PaKeRcIn b:uEnþvaminman lkçN³x<s;esμInwgkMe)ar)ayGr
EdllayedaybrimaNesμIKña éndIElglayTwkeT. dMeNIrkarFmμtaén GuIRdatkmμ énQuicklime
enAsMBaFbriyakaspþl;nUvGuIRdatkmμénkal;süÚmGuksuItnwgbMElgeTACam:aejsüÚm GuIRdUsuIt.
lT§plenHRtUv)aneGayeQμaHy:agdUcenHfa special hydrated ¬RbePT S ¦EdlminEmnmanEtsarFatu
sMxan; magnesia cUlrYmGuIRdatkmμsBVeT b:uEnþvamankMrit)øasÞikx<s;Pøam² enAeBlvaesImedayTwk. kMe)ar)ay
GrEdllayBIRbePT S gayRsYleFVIkarCag)ayGrlayCamYyRbePT N.
tamBit hydrated lime RbePT S gayRsYleFVIkaresÞIrEtdUc)ayGrlayCamYydIElg Quicklime Edr
ehIydUcenHGñkeRbIR)as; Hydrated lime RbePTenHmanPaBgayRsYledaysarplitplenHRckkñúgkBa©b; nig
mankMriténkargayRsYleFVIkarx<s;edayKμaneRKaHfñak; EdlGacekItmandUc Quick lime layTwkeT.
Finishing hydrated lime
Finishing Hydrated lime saksmübMputsMrab;eRbIR)as;enAkñúgkMe)arbUkRsTab;begðIy. vaRtUv)an
kMNt;lkçN³edaykMritBN’sx<s; nigkMrit)aøsÞikx<s;. RKb; Finishing Hydrated lime RtUv)anplit
CaBiessenAkñúg Rsuk Toledo énekaH Ohio BIfμkMe)ar Dolomitic. kMe)ar Hydrate FmμtapSMeLIgeday
kal;süÚmGuIRduksuIt nig m:aej:süÚmGuksuIt. enAeBlvaesImdMbUg vamanlkçN³)øasÞikmanxøaMgdUc mason’s
hydrated lime RbePT NeT. eTaHbICay:agNa vamanPaBxusKñaenAeBleRkay EdleRkayBIkarRtaMTwk

eBjmYyyb; Finishing hydrated lime begáInnUvkMrit)øasÞikrbs;vax<s;Nas;Edl mason’s hydarted Lime
bgðajnUvTMnak;TMngénPaBlUtlas;énlkçN³)øasÞiky:agtictYcenAeBlRtaMTwk.
1>6 suIm:g;t_erobdæ Masonry ament
suIm:g;t_erobdæ (masonry cement) b¤CYnkaleKcUlcitþehAehAsuIm:g;t_kMe)ar)ayGr (motar cement)
EdlRtUv)anlayCamYynwgxSac; nigeRbIsMrab;begáItCaCBa¢aMgdædUcCa dæ kar:U nigfμ. vaGacCaRbePTmYyén
suIm:g;t_GuIRdUlIkEdl)anbriyayrYcehIy b¤karlayrbs;vaenAkñúgsmamaRtNamYy.
suIm:g;t_erobdætamEbbBaNiC¢kmμxøHRtUv)anlaybBa©ÚlKñaedaysuIm:g;t_ lanning nigkMTicepHpg;fμ
kMe)ar (limestone) CaerOy² mansmamaRtfμkMe)areRcIn 50° b¤60°. enAeBlEdlKμankarkMNt;BIsarFatu
KImInig tMrUvkarlkçN³rUb lkçN³bBa¢ak;y:agc,as;BIsuIm:g;t_erobdæ KWmanlkçN³esrICamFüm.
plitkrxøH )anERbRbYlnUvsmasFatuy:agTUlMTUlayGaRs½yeTAnwgkarRbkYtRbECg lkçxNÐGakasFatu
b¤vtßúFatuesIm EdlGacrk)an. lT§plénkMe)ar)ayGrGacmanlkçN³ERbRbYly:agxøaMg.
1>7 Fly ashes
Pozzolans FmμCatiRtUv)anykecjBI diatomaceous earth/ opaline ehets nig fμPaCn_ (shales) nig
sarFatuepSgeTot.
Fly ashes RtUv)anplitecjBIcMehHFüÚgfμCaTUeTA enAkñúgsßanIym:asuInGKÁisnI (electrical generating
station) . kMeTcepHEdlCaFmμta RtUv)anykecjtamry³bMBg;EpSgEdlykecjtamviFICaeRcIndUcCa
electrostatic precipitators. Fly ash GacRtUvmanTMhMeTAtamkardwkCBa¢Úntamk):al;rbs;GñkpÁt;pÁg;ebtug.
Fly ahses TaMgGs;manlkçN³ Pozzolan EdlGacmanlT§PaBcUlrYmRbtikmμCamYynwg
kal;süÚmGuIRduksuItenAsItuNðPaBFmμtaedImbegáItCasmasPaBCamYynwglkçN³suIm:g;t_.
enAeBlEdlsuIm:g;t_RtUv)anlayCamYynwgTwk RbtikmμKImI ¬GuIRdatkmμ¦ nigekIteLIg. lT§plén
RbtikmμenHKW calcium silicate hydrated (CSH) nigkal;süÚmGuIRduksuIt [Ca(OH)2] . Fly ashes manPaKryén
suIlIkUnDIGuksuIt (SiO2) x<s;. enAeBlEdlmanvtþmanCamYynwgsMeNIm Ca(OH)2 eFVIRbtikmμCamYynwg SiO2
edIm,ITTYl)an CSH epSgeTot. Fly ashes RbePT F )anBIlT§plénkardutFüÚgfμexμAPøW (anthracite) rWFüÚgfñ
ekAs‘Ub‘ÍTIm (bituminous) nwgmansarFatu Pozzolan. vaRtUv)anbgðajedaykarRsavRCavnig GnuvtþedIm,Ipþl; nUv
PaBrIkcMerInCaTUeTAénPaBFn;nwg sulfate nigedIm,Ikat;bnßynUvPaBrIkraldalénfμ alkali. Fly ahses RbePT

C )anBIlT§plénkardutFüÚgfμ lignite rWFüÚgfμ subbituminous. edaysarEtlkçN³KImIénFüÚgfμ fly ashes
RbePTC manlkçN³suIm:g;t_edaybEnßmeTAkñúgsarFatu Pozzolon. Fly ash RbePT C Gackat;bnßyPaByUr
GEgVgénebtug EdlvacUlrYmlaybBa©ÚlKña.
2> fμbMEbk Aggregate
fμbMEbkKWCadak;bBa©ÚlKñanUvsarFatuCaeRcIndUcCafμ boulder, fμ cobble, fμkinbMEbk (crushed stone) fμ
gravel, fμ aircooled blast furnace slage, xSac;FmμCati b¤xSac;sib,nimiμtþ nigRKYssib,nimiμtþ nig RKYsFmμCati
Rsal. fμμbMEbkGacRtUv)anBN’naeTAtamTMhMCaeRcIneTot.
2>1 fμbMEbkTMgn;Fmμta Normal –weigth aggregates
fμbMEbkRbePTenHmandg;suIetxniC (specific gravity) enAcenøaH 2>0 nig 3>0. CaTUeTAvaRtUv)anEck
eTAtamTMhMxageRkam³
fμ Bounder manTMhMFMCag6in
fμ Cobble mancenøaH 3in eTA 6in
RKYs (coarse aggregate) manTMhMcenøaHkERBa©g Nº 4 eTA 3in
xSac; (fine aggregate) manTMhMcenøaHkERBa©g Nº 200 eTA Nº 4
sarFatum:t;epHpg; (miniral filler material) qøgkat;kERBa©gelx Nº200
fμbMEbkTMgn;Fmμta EdleRbIenAkñúgsMNg;ebtugPaKeRcIn KW)anBIkarbUmBI)atTenø b¤CIkykBIkñúgdI
nig )anBIkarbMEbkvtßúFatuepSg². ebtugEdlman)anBIkarlayCamYynwgRKYs nigxSac;TMgn;FmμtaCaTUeTAman
TMgn;RbEhl144 lb/1ft
3
.
fμ Bounder nigfμ Cobble CaTUeTAmin)aneRbItamTMhMEdl)anEdl)anCIkBIkñúgdIeT b:uEnþRtUv)ankinbMEbk
edIm,IeGaymanTMhMepSg²CaRKYs (coarse aggreagate) xSac;sib,kmμ (manufactured –sand) nigkMeTcepHpg;
(mineral filler) . RKYs gravel nigxSac;EdlekIteLIgedayFmμCatiRtUv)anekIteLIgedayskmμPaBénTwknig
karpøas;bþÚrrdUvkal nigkarnaMykdImkcak;kñúg)atTenø. sarFatuTaMgenHmanragmUl épÞrelag nigkarEbgEck
TMhMénRKab;edaydMeNIrkary:agtictYc. sarFatuTaMgenHGacpÁt;pÁg;tamTMhMCaRKYsnig xSac;.

xSac;KWCasarFatuEdlqøgkat;kERBa©gTMhM 3¼8 in 100%. RKYsmanvtßúFatuEdlmanTMhMeTIelIkERBa©g
elx 4.
fμbMEbkmanbrimaNmaDKitCaPaKryeRcInCageK enAkñúgebtugsuIm:g;t_ lanning kMe)ar)ayGr b¤
asphaltic concrete . enAkñúgkarlayCaebtugsuIm:g;t_ lanning RKYsnwgxSac;cUlrYmRbEhlBI 65 eTA 70° én
maDrbs;l,aysarub. sMrab; asphaltic concrete fμbMEbkcUlrYm 75 eTA 85°énmaDrbs;l,ay. CalT§pl
fμμbMEbk KWCasarFatubMeBjminkMerIk. lkçN³fμbMEbkGacbgðajBIT§iBleTAelIRbBn½§CIvit nigPaByUr GEgVg
énebtugEdlRKYsfμbMEbkRtUv)aneRbIdUcCasuIm:g;t_ lanning , asphaltic concrete, kMe)ar)ayGr b¤fμRkal RKwHfñl;
(aggregate base) .
karGnuBaØati[eRbIR)as;RKYs b¤xSac;sMrab;layenAkñúgebtug b¤kMe)ar)ayGr KWvinicä½yedaylkçN³Ca
eRcInrYmmandUcCa karErgkMNt;TMhMRKab; (gradation) brimaNxSac;qøgkat;kERBa©g Nº 200, PaBrwg (hardness) ,
soudness, TMrg;RKab;/ PaBlMnwgénmaD (volume stability) RbtikmμeTAnwg alkili y:agskþanuBl (potential alkali
reactivity) PaBFn;eTAnwgkarkkCaTwkkk nigkarrlayénTwkkk (resistance to freezing and thawing) nig
sarFatuxniCminsuT§.
2>2 fμbMEbkEdlmanTMgn;F¶n;nig Rsal Heavy weigth and light weigth aggregate
fμbMEbkTMgn;F¶n;rYmman magnitite Edlmandg;suIetxniC (specific gravity) 4>3 barite mandg;suIet
xniC 4>2 limonit mandg;suIetxniC 3>8 EdkpUsV½rmandg;suIetxniC 6>3 nigkMeTcEdkmandg;suIetxniC 7>4.
fμbMEbkTMgn;F¶n;xagelIGaceRbICMnYsfμ gravel b¤fμkinbMEbkedIm,IbegáItCaebtugd¾ENntan;.
fμbMEbkTMgn;Rsallight weigth aggregate
vaGacEbgEckCaBIrRbePTKW eRKagsMNg; (structural) nigminEmneRKagsMNg; (nonstructural) . va)an
BIkarplit ¬eFVIBIdIdæ/ fμPaCn_ b¤silaqñÜn (slate) b¤kMeTcGamn_ EdkpÞúHecjBIL (blast furnace slage) b¤eday
FmμCati (scoria nig pumice) . fμbMEbkenHGacbegáItCaebtugEdlmanPaBFn; nwgkMlaMgTUeTAenAcenøaHBI
3000 eTA 4000 psi PaBFn;énkMlaMgx<s;CagenHk¾GaceFVI)an. TMgn;Éktaxül;s¶Üt (air-dry unit weigth) én
PaBFn;énkMlaMgx<s;CagenHk¾GaceFVI)an. TMgn;Éktaxül;s¶Üt (aiz-dry unit weght) énPaBFn;énkMlaMgFmμta
énebtugTMgn;Rsal ¬ticCag 5000psi¦ enAcenøaHBI100 eTA 115 pcf . PaBFn;Edlx<s;énebtugTMgn;Rsal
manTMgn;Ékta (unitweight) kñúgcenøaH 120pcf.

fμbMEbkTMgn;RsalminEmneRKagsMNg;FmμtaKW vermiculite nig perlite sUm,IEt scoria nig pumice
k¾GacRtUv)aneRbIEdr. sMPar³TaMgenHRtUv)aneRbIenAkñúgebtugEdlmankMralxNÐ½GuIsULg; karBarsMelg nig
kMralminEmneRKagxagelIeK. fμbMEbkTMgn;RsalbegáItebtugEdlmankarcMlgkMedATab Edlmankar
karBarePøIg)anl¥esμIKña. enAeBlebtugenHRbQmnwgkMedAxøaMg bMputsMeNImEdlmanenAkñúgebtug)anERbkøay
y:agqab;BIPaBrav eTACacMhayEdlmanmaDrhUtdl;15dgFMCagmun. cMnYnrn§es<atd¾eRcIn nigmanTMhMFMenA
cenøaHfμbMEbkTMgn;Rsal)anbegáIttMbn;sMBaFFUrRsal (pressure relief region) .
3> TwkfñaMKImIsMrab;ebtug Admixture for concrete
TwkfñaMKImIKWCasarFatuepSgeTotBI suIm:g;t_ lanning Twk nigfμbMEbkEdlRtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgebtug
edIm,IEkERblkçN³rbs;ebtug. rYmbBa©ÚleTAkñúgGtßn½yenHvaKWTwkfñaMKImI TwkfñaMEr: dUcCa fly ash nig silica fume
sarFatukarBareRcH/ sarFatuEfmBN’ sarFatusésrsURt nigepSg² ¬CMnYykarbUm/ karBarsMeNIm/
bgá]sμ½n/ Pñak;garkat;bnßykarRCab¦.
3/1 TwkfñaMKImIBIKImI nig BIEr: Chimical and mineral admixture
TwkfñaMKImIRtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAenAkñúgebtugCaGgÁFatuCYykat;bnßybrimaNTwk GgÁFatuBenøÓn nigBnüWt
eBlkk b¤CaGgÁFaturYmpSM.
A GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk
B GgÁFatuBnüWteBlkkrwg
C GgÁFatuBenøÓneBlkkrwg
D GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk nigBnüWteBlkkrwg
E GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk nigBnøÓneBlkkrwg
F GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk kMritx<s;
G GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk kMritx<s;nigBnüWteBlkkrwg
TwkfñaMKImIkMritx<s;kat;bnßybrimaNTwk EdlcaM)ac;cUlrYmbegáItCaebtugCaBiessedayminpøas;bþÚr
12° b¤eRcInCagenH.
TwkfñaMKImIkat;bnßybrimaNTwkWater-reducing admixture

TwkfñaMenH)ankat;bnßytMrUvkarTwksMrab;layebtugedayeFVIRbtikmμKImICamYynwg
plitplGuIRdakmμ )anqab;eLIgedIm,IbegáItRsTab;TwkfñaMKImI m:UNUm:UelKulenATwksuIm:g;t_.
RsTab;enH)anEjkRKab;suIm:g;t_ nig kat;bnßytMrUvkarfamBledIm,IeFVIeGayl,ayenH)anhUr.
dUcenHl,ayenHKW “lubricated” nwgCMrujeGayRKab; suIm:g;t_cUlrYmGuIRdatkmμ.
TwkfñaMKImIkat;bnßybrimaNTwkCaFmμtaplitBIGasuIt Lignosulfnic nig GMbilrbs;va
GasuItkabUksuIlicGuIRduksuIt nigGMbilrbs;va b¤ polymer Edl)anBI melamine b¤ naphthalene rWGuIRdUkabUns‘ul
pUNat. bnSMénTwkfñaMKImIEdleRbIenAkñúgl,ayebtugKYrEtRtUvRtYtBinitü nigeFVIBiesaFy:agRbugRbytñ½ edIm,I
Fanafa lkçN³EdleKcg;)anRtUv)anTTYl. ]TahrN_GaRs½yeday kMritlay (dosage) énTwkfñaMKImI nig
lkçN³KImIénsuIm:g;t_ vaGacmanlT§PaBeFVIeGayTwkfñaMKImIBnüWtkarkk nigBenøÓnkarkkrwgénebtug. vak¾
bgðaj nUvkarkt;sMKal;fa TwkfñaMKImIEdlCMrujkarkkrwgFmμta nigBnüWtkarkkRbsinebIkMritlayman
brimaNelIs. elIsBIenHeTot edaysarEtPaBxusKñaenAkñúgPaKry énduMsUlItrvagplitpl )anBI
Rkumh‘unepSgeTotvaEtg EtminmanTMnak;TMngKñaedaypÞal;rvagTwkfñaMKImIEdlmancMNat;fñak;dUcKña. dUcenH
vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkarkMNt;smasPaBKImIy:agRbugRbytñ½ enAeBlRtYtBinitükarRbkYtRbECgénTwkfñaMKImI.
TwkfñaMKImIEdlbegáItBBuHxül;Air-Entraining Admixture
TwkfñaMenH)anbegáItBBuHxül;d¾EsntUcbMputCaeRcInEdlmanenAkñúgebtug edIm,IkarBarebtugBIeGanPaB
bNþalmkBIskmμPaBRcMEdlénkarkk nigkarrlayénTwkkk b¤karEsþgénkarQøanBanénsarFatuKImI.
sMrab;ebtug EdlRbQmnwgkarkk énkarrlayRcMdEdl enaHBBuHxül;pþl;nUvbnÞb;sMrab;rIkdalénTwk
xageRkA nigxagkñúgEdleTaHCay:agNavaGacbNþaleGayeRKaHfñak;dl;ebtug. enAeBlEdlebtugEdlman
BBuHxül;RCabecjmanvisalPaBtictYcCag ebtugKμanBBuHxül;enaHvanigekItmansésqμatictYcbnøayBIsñÚl
énebtugdl;épÞxageRkA. dUecñHsésqμad¾tictYcenHCapøÚvcUlénkarQøanBanénsarFatuKImIeTAkñúgebtug.
TwkfñaMKImIBenøÓnkarkkSet-accelerating admixture
vaRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;kat;bnßyeBlevlaBIcab;epþImlayTwkeTAkñúgsuIm:g;t_ dMbUgénkarcab;dMeNIrkar nig
begáInGaRtaénPaBFn;énkMlaMgEdlTTYl)anedayebtug. TwkfñaMKImIBenøÓnkarkkEdlRtUv)aneRbICaFmμta
eRcInCageK KWkal;süÚmkørIt. eTaHCay:agNa kareRbIR)as;rbs;va KWRbqaMgkñúgkrNIEdlEdkBRgwgnig Edk
prestressing manvtþman. mUlehturbs;va KWfavamanlT§PaBfa GgÁFatuBenøÓnnigbBa©Úly:agesrInUvEdkkørIt

eTAkñúgebtug dUecñHvanwgbgáeGaymaneRcHsuIEdk. PaBEbøkKñaénkareRbIR)as;Twk fñaMKImImYykñúgcMeNamTwkfñaM
KImIEdlminmansarFatukørIt RtUv)aneRbI.
TwkfñaMKImIBnüWtkarkk Retarding Admixture
sMrab;visalPaBxøH TwkfñaMKImIkat;bnßybrimaNTwkFmμtaTaMgGs;BnüWtkarkkdMbUgénebtug.
TwkfñaMKImIsarFatuEr: Mineral Admixture
Fly ashes, pozzolans nig microsilicates RtUv)anbBa©ÚleTAnwgcMNat;fñak;fñaMTwkfñaMKImIsarFatuEr:. eBl
xøHsuIm:g;t_FmμtaGaceRbICaTwkfñaMKImI.
karkarBareRcHsuICorrosion inhibitor
CaTUeTAEdkBRgwgenAkñúgebtugRtUv)ankarBarRbqaMgnwgeRcHsuIedaysarFatu alkalinity
y:agx<s;énebtug Edl begáItnUvRsTab;GskmμenABIelIépÞEdk. RsTab;enHmansmasFatuEdkGuksuIt (ferric
oxide) EdlCasarFatulMnwg. eTaHCay:agNa enAkñúg b¤enABIelIépÞénEdkGuksuIt (ferric oxid)
KWCasmasFatuEdkGuksuIt (ferrous oxid compound) EdlmanRbtikmμy:agxøaMg. enAeBlEdlsmasFatu
EdkGuksuItcUleTATak;TgCamYynwg sarFatuQøanBan dUcCa chloride oxide vaeFVIRbtikmμCamYyGuksuIEsn
edIm,IbegáItCaduMsUlIt plitpleRcHEdk GuksuIt (iron-oxide corrosion product) . lT§plenH)anbegáIn
TMhMmaDrbs;va4dg nigbegáItkMlaMgrIkFak;kan; EtFMCagPaBFn;énkMlaMgTajpþac;énebtug. lT§plenHkan;Et
eFVIeGayebtugmanlkçN³y:ab;yWnEfmeTot.
enAeBlEdleRcHsuIcab;epþImkekIt vtþmanrbs; chloride enAcenøaHBI1 eTA 1>5lb/yd3
. ]TahrN_
RbsinebIGacmanlT§PaB chloride GacRCabcUlBIxageRkAsñÚlebtug edayykTwkkkecjBIGMbil ebtugGac
RtUv)ankarBaredaypleFobTwk nigsuIm:g;t_kan;EtTabeLIg² b¤begáInbrimaNRKb;dNþb;elIEdkBRgwg b¤BBuH
xül;mankñúgebtug b¤bEnßmTwkfñaMKImIEdlmansarFatukal;süÚmnIRtat rWbEnßmTwkfñaMKImIr)aMgxagkñúg (internal-
barrier) b¤karBarkartUt (cathodic protection) b¤CabnSMénvIFITaMgenH.
edIm,IkarBareRcHsuI TwkfñaMKImI kal;süÚmnIRtatRtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgebtugkñúgeBlkMBuglaymþgeTot
(batching) .vamin)anbegáItr)aMglkçN³rUbeTAnwgpøÚvcUlénEdkkørIkeT. va)anpøas;bþÚrlkçN³KImIénebtugEk,r
KYrsmépÞEdk. vtþmanénG‘uksuItEdknIRTIt )anbMElg ferrous oxid eTACa ferric oxide.
sarFatunIRTItk¾RtUv)anRsUbykenAÉépÞénsrésEdkehIy begáInkMlaMgdl;RsTab;Gskmμ ferric oxide.

sMrab;TwkfñaMKImI kal;süÚm nIRTItEdlRtUv)anykmkeRbI kMriteRbIR)as; (desoage) KYrRtUv)anEktMrUv
edaysMrbCamYynwglkçxNÐRbQmrbs;ebtugeTAnwgPñak;gareRcHsuI. épÞRbQmkan;EtFMkMriteRbIR)as;KYrEt
FMEdr. kMriteRbIR)as;d¾RtwmRtUvGacRtUv)ankMNt;eTAelIKMeragmYyeTA KMeragmYyedayQrelImUldæanCamYy
nwgTinñn½ysMrab;esckþIesñIsuMTwkfñaMKImICak;lak;. TwkfñaMKImIr)aMgxagkñúg (internal –barrier) manBIrRkum. RkumTI
mYymansmasFatukarBarRCabTwk nigkarBarRCabsMeNIm. RkumTIBIrmanPñak;garEdlbegáItRsTab;sarFatu
xniCCuMvijEdkBRgwg bEnßmBIelIRsTab;Gskmμ. TwkfñaMKImIRbePTenH)anCMrujsMrab;bEnßmBIelIGRtaEdl)an
kMNt;edayKμanKitBIkarRbQmnwgsarFatukørItdayKitfanwgekIteLIg.
TwkfñaMKImIBN’Coloring admixture
sarFatuBN’RtUv)anbEnßmeTAelIebtugsMrab;ehtuplsßabtükmμ. vaGacCaG‘uksuItEr: b¤RKab;fñaMBN’
sib,kmμ. sarFatukabUneqABN’exμA RtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAsMrab;sarFatuBN¥exμAEdl)ankat;bnßybrimaNBBuH
xül;EdlekItmanenAkñúgl,ayy:ageRcIn. dUcenHRbsinebIebtugBN’exμARtUv)aneKcg;)ansMrab;ebtugEdltMrUv
eGaymanBBuHxül; ¬sMrab;ebtugEdlRbQmnwgPaBkk b¤rlayénTwkkk b¤karQøanBanénsarFatuKImI¦ enaH
kabUnexμA (carbon black) KYrRtUvEkERbeTACaBBuHxül; b¤eTACaPñak;garbEnßmkekItBBuHxül;EdlGacrYm
bBa©ÚleTAkñúgl,ay. karKitBIl,ay (mix design) KYrRtUv)aneFVIBiesaFn_eRkamlkçxNÐCak;Esþgénkardæan
edIm,IeRbIR)as;enAkñúgsMNg;kardæan. kareRbIR)as;nUvtMrUvkarBN’edayRbugRbytñ½RtYtBinitüsMPar³ ]bkrN_
nigkarbEnßmbrimaNTwkedIm,IrkSanUvPaBminpøas;bþÚrenAÉkardæan.
4> kMe)ar)ayGr nig ebtug Mortar and concrete
4>1 kMe)ar)ayGr Motar
)ayGrRtUv)anpSMeLIgedaysarFatusuIm:g;t_ RKYsfμl¥it xSac;nig Twk. vaRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;eFVIkMraldl;
kargarrabdæ sMrab;bUk nig stucooes nig laybEnßmCamYyRKYsfμFM² køayeTACaebtug. karKitenATIenH
RtUv )aneGayCadMbUgeTA)ayGrenaHEdlRtUveRbIR)as;sMrab;kagarrabdænigbUkkMe)ar.
lkçN³rbs;)ayGrERbRbYly:agxøaMg GaRs½yeTAnwglkçN³énsarFatusuIm:g;t_EdlykmkeRbIpl
eFobénsuIm:g;t_ nigxSac; lkçN³ nigkMritcMNat;fñak;xSac;nigpleFobTwknigsarFatusUlIt.

4>2 ebtugsuIm:g;t_B½rEln Portland cement concrete
ebtugsuIm:g;B½rElnCal,ayénsuIm:g;t_ lanning Twk RKYsFM nigxSac; nigsmamaRt énTwkfñaMKImIedIm,I
begáItCam:as)øasÞikEdlmanlT§PaBGaccak; dak; nigbBa©ÚleTAkñúgBum<EdlvanwgrwgeTACam:assUlIt. lkçN³
EdleKcg;)anénebtug)øasÞikenH KWPaBGaceFVIkarrbs;vaPaBGacdak; nigminbMEbksmasFaturYmpSM nigEdlva
GackkeTAtameBlevlaEdleKcg;)an. ebtugEdlrwgKYrpþl;nUvlkçN³esvaEdleKcg;)an³
1> PaBFn;énkMlaMg ¬sgát; nigflexural¦
2> PaByUrGEgVg ¬ minmansñameRbH Fn;eTAnwgkarkk nigkarrlayénTwkkk nigkarvaylukén
sarFatuKIm/Fn;eTAnwgPaBrMj½rnigbrimaNxül;Edlman¦
3> rUbragemIlBIxageRkA ¬BN’/ épÞmanPaBminRKb;lkçN³¦
lkçN³nimYy² CHT§iBldl;tMélcugeRkayénkarKitl,ay (mixdesign) nigtMélénkarcak;ebtugenA
nwgkEnøg. lkçN³TaMgenHGacTTYl)anBIebtugTMgn;Fmμta TMgn;Rsal nigTMgn;F¶n;.
4>3 ebtugb:UlIEmr Polymer concrete
lkçN³)øasÞikrbs;ebtugCamYynwg Rcv:ak;mU:elKuld¾EvgRtUv)aneKehAfa ebtugb:UlIEmrRtUv)aneKeRbI
R)as;kñúgviFICaeRcInedIm,IbegáInnUvlkçN³rbs;ebtug karCMnYsnUvsuIm:g;t_ lanning EdlcUlrYmpSMCamYynwgl,ay
dUcCaTwkfñaMKImI nigeFVIeGayebtugnwgs‘b;.
ebtugb:UlIEmr dUcCa methyl methacrylate nig polyyester EdlminEq¥tTwk EdlenAkñúgenaHb:UlIEmr
CMnYssum:g;t_ lanning GacmanPaBFn;énkMlaMg nigmU:DuleGLasÞic (modulus of elasticity) FMCagebtugsuIm:g;t_
lanning 2dg. CamYynwgebtugb:UlIEmr creep RtUv)anbnßynig PaBFn;énvdþénkarkk nwgkarrlayénTwkkk
eLIgx<s;. ]TahrN_bnÞab;BIkarEfrTaMTwksMrab;ry³eBld¾xøIbMput eBjmYyyb;kñúgsituNðPaBbnÞb;
ebtugb:UlIEmr )aneRtomxøÜnCaeRscsMrab;eRbIkar EdlpÞúyBIebtugFmμtaEdlRtUvTTYlkarEfrTaMsMeNIm
RbEhlmYys)aþh_ munnwgTTYlbnÞúkBIxageRkA.
m:UNUEmr nigb:UlIEmrGacRtUveRbICaTwkfñaMKImIsMrab;eFVIeGaydUcedImvij nigeFVIeGayépÞénebtugEdlman
PaBy:ab;yWnmanPaBdUcedImeLIgvij. latexe én methyl methacrylate, polyester, styrene, epoxy-styrene,
furan, styrence-butacliene nig vinylindene chloride RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;eKalbMNgTaMgenH. lT§plénkarkkrwg
énebtugmansPaBelOnCagebtugFmμta. TwkfñaMKImIb:UlIEmrk¾GacnwgRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IbegáInlkçN³PaBs¥it én
suIm:g;t_ Lanning. kardak;laybBa©Úlkñúgl,ayCaTwkfñaMKImIlayTwk sMrab;eKalbMNgenH TwkfñaMKImI)anpþl;

nUvbrimaNTwkCaeRcInenAkñúgl,ay EdlGaccUlrYmsMrab;RbtikmμGuIRdatkmμénsuIm:g;t_. karbeBa©jnUvbrimaN
Twkk¾)ankMNt;nUvbrimaNTwkfñaMlayTwk.
dUcenH karEfrkSasMeNImminRtUv)aneKeFVIeT sMrab;karEdlRtUvkarTwkfñaMKImIlayTwk brimaNeRcIn
edIm,IeFVIeGays¶Üt nigbegáInnUvPaBFn;EdleKcg;)an. grout nig)ayGrEdlmanlayTwkfñaMKImIbegáInPaBs¥it
(bondin admixture) begáInnUvPaBFn;énPaBs¥itkan;Etx<s;enAeBleKeFVIvaCaRsTab;y:agesþIgCagRkas
ehIyPaB s¥itGacnwgxøaMgCagsMPar³sMrab;eFVImuxtMNreTot.
Impregnation énebtugb:UlIEmr eBlxøHRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IBRgwgépÞEdlRbQmnwgcracrN_F¶n;². PaB
Fn;énkMlaMg niglkçN³epSgeTotén impregnation ebtugKWRsedogKñaeTAnwgebtugEdlb:UlIEmrCMnYseday
suIm:g;t_ lanning. Impregnation RtUv)anTTYlCadMbUgedayeFVIeGayépÞénebtugeLIgs¶ÜtedaykardutkMedAnig
bnÞab;mkRtaMépÞebtugnwgm:UNUEmrdUcCa methyl methacrylate, styrence, acrylonitrile b¤ tert-butyl styrene.
nigvaRtUvEfrrkSasMeNImkñúgeBlbnþeTotedaykMedA.
RsTab;begðIyénkMral (slab topping) y:agticedayEpñk² edaysarEtPaBs¥ittex©aH epoxy RtUv)an
pSMrUbmnþCamYynwgxSac; nigkMeTcepHepSgeTot edIm,IeFVIvavtßúFatueFVIépÞsMrab;ebtug. edaymindUcnwgbTdæanén
RsTab;begðIyrbs;ebtug vtßúFatueFVIépÞ epoxy-based GacRtUveFVIy:agesþIg². CaBiessvamanRbeyaCn_sMrab;
eFVIeGayépÞEdlmansPaBminFmμta eGaymanPaBrelag rabesμI. epoxy RtUv)ans¶Üty:agelOnEdlGnuBaØati
eGayeRbIR)as;nUvRsTab;épÞenaH)ankñúgry³eBly:agxøI.
Grout: sñameRbHénebtugGacRtUv)anCYsCuleday epoxy grout . grout RtUv)anbgçMeGayRCabcUlkñúg
sñameRbH)any:ageRCAeRkamsMBaF. edaysarEtPaBFn;énkMlaMgén bonding rbs;val¥ expoxy grout GaceFVI
eGayPaBFn;énkMlaMgmansPaBdUcedImvij )any:agTUlayEdlkñúgeBlCamYyenaHkarbiTP¢itsñameRbHRbqaMg
nwgkarRCabénsarFaturav.
5> karcak;ebtug Concrete Placement
5>1 karGnuvtþn_d¾l¥ Good Pratice
eKalkarN_énkarRKb;RKgd¾RtwmRtUvkñúgkarcak;ebtugKW
karbMEbksarFaturYmpSMRtUv)anecosevogkñúgGMLúgeBlRKb;RbtibtþicenøaHeBllaynig cMNucénkar
cak;rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkarbgðab;cugeRkay (final consolidation) nigkareFVIeGayépÞmuxelIrabesμI.

ebtugRtUvEteFVIeGayhab;sBVsac; edayGnuvtþedayKμancenøaHRbehagCuMvijkardak;bBa©úHdgrMj½rbgðab;
nwgKYrbMeBjRKb;muMnig RCugénBum<.
enAeBlEdlebtugravRtUv)ancak;BIelIebtug EdlrwgrYcehIyPaBs¥itl¥RtUvEtbegáInBIelIebtugEdlrwg
rYc.
5>2 viFIénkarcak; Methods of Placing
ebtugGacRtUvdwknaMtaMgBIkarlayrhUtdl;cMNucénkarcak;edayviFInig ]bkrN_eRcInRbePTepSg²
RbsinebIkardwkCBa¢Üny:agRtwmRtUvRtUv)anecosevogkarbMEbkFaturYmpSM.kareRCIserIsbec©keTssMrab;karsnMS
sMécd¾smRsbCageK GaRs½yeTAnwglkçxNÐkardæankargar CaBiessTMhMKMerag ]bkrN_nig bTBiesaFn_ én
Gñkem:Akar (contractor) . sMrab;sMNg;GaKarCaTUeTA ebtugRtUv)ancak;edayéd b¤eday power-operate
buggies; edayFugcuHTMluH)at CamYynwg]bkrN_sÞÚceyag/ edaycak;eGayhUrtamCMerlT/ bUmedaybMBg;
EdlGacbt;Ebn)an rWrwg/ shotcrete EdlTaMgsarFatus¶Üt nigTwkRtUv)an)acsacedayELkBIKña
b¤l,ayénebtugRtUv)an)aj;eTAkñúgBum< nigsMrab;karcak;ebtugeRkamTwk tremie chute
¬bMBg;EdlGacbt;Ebn)anRtUv)anbiT¦. sMrab;sMNg;ebtugm:as reTHEdlGacebIkxag)anenABIelIpøÚv
reTHd¾ceg¥ót (narrow-gage track) b¤RtUvdwknaMedayExSGacRtUv)aneRbI. sMrab;kMralépÞpøÚv ebtugGacRtUvdak;
eTAkñúgFugBIdgsnÞÚceyagénm:asuInlay Edlcak;edaypÞal;edayLanEbn b¤LanRklukebtug b¤minpÞal;
edayLaneTAkñúg]bkrN_)acsac.
vIFICaBiessénkarcak;ebtug smRsbsMrab;lkçxNÐminFmμtaCaeRcInman karbMeBjgrout eTAelIRKYs
fμFM² EdlerobCaeRsc. viFIenHGacmanRbeyaCn_CaBiesssMrab;ebtugeRkamTwk BIeRBaH grout RtUv)anbBa©Úl
eTAkñúg fμbMEbktamry³kar)aj;edaybMBg;Rtg;y:agsnSwm² ehIypøas;kEnøgTwkEdlvamanTMgn;RsayCag
grout. edaysar bearing contact énfμbMEbktUcCagFmμtaEdlPaBrYmmaDTaMgRsugk¾RtUv)anTTYl.
5>3 PaBelIsTwk Excess water
sUm,ICamYynwg karkMNt;y:agCak;lak;sMrab; Slump nigpleFob Twk suIm:g;t_ PaBelIsbrimaNTwk
RtUvEtecosvag. enAkñúgGtßbTenH PaBelIsénTwkRtUv)anbgðajsMrab;karbEnßménkarcak;RbsinebImankar
bgðajnUvbrimaNTwkGENþteLIg ¬karbMEbkFaturUmpSMtamTisedAQr¦ nigbrimaNTwkhUr ¬karbMEbkFaturYm

pSMtamTisedAedk¦ ekIteLIg. PaBelIsTwkk¾GaceFVIeGayépÞénebtugmanPaBGaRkk;CagmunedaybegáInkar
elcTwktamRbehagBum<.CalT§plGacCasMbukXμMCa sanstreak CaeRcInBN’b¤ CacMNucTn;enAelIépÞebtug.
sMrab;Bum<bBaÄr brimaNTwkekIneLIgbNþaleGay Plane exSaccenøaHRsTab;énkarcak;nimYy². Ca
bEnßmeTAelIT§iBléneRKagEdlmansPaBkan;Ety:ab; Plane xagelI enAeBleLIgrwwgmanrn§EdlTwkGachUr
qøgtamry³rn§.
sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMedk dUcCakMralxNÐ½ PaBelIsTwk)anekIteLIg nig bNþaleGaymanRsTab; laitance
exSayenAelIbg¥s;. RsTab;enHrgnUvPaBFn;énkMlaMgTab PaBFn;nwgkarrMj½r PaBrYmmaDx<s; nigCaTUeTAman
KuNPaBGn;.
5>4 kareFVIeGayhab; Consolidation
eKalbMNgénkarbgðab; KWkat;bnßyrn§Edlmanxül; nigedIm,IFananUvkarb:HBal;y:agCitsñit nigsBV
sac;énebtug nigépÞénBum< nigEdkBRgwg. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday karrMj½rd¾xøaMg k¾Gackat;bnßynUvmaDén
BBuHxül; EdleKcg;)an b:uEnþkat;bnßyenHGacRtUvTUTat;edaykarEktMrUvénsmamaRténl,ay.
]bkrN_rMj½rEdlbeB©ajfamBlBIxagkñúgGacRtUveRbIedIm,IeFVIeGayebtughab;.eTaHCay:agNa sMrab;
kMralesþIgEdlmanebtugKuNPaBx<s; slump TabGacnwg)anbgðab;eGayhab;edaymanRbsiT§iPaBedayman
PaBelIsTwk eday]bkrN_rMj½répÞemkanic. sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdlcak;TukRsab;EdlmanBum<rwg maM nigTwkcUl
min)an karrMj½rBIxageRkA ¬énBum<xøÜnva¦ KWmanRbsiT§iPaBx<s;. karrMj½rBIxageRkAk¾manRbsiT§iPaBsMrab;Bum<
enAnwgkEnøg b:uEnþKYrminRtUv)aneRbI elIkElgEtBum<enHRtUv)anKitrcnabøg;CaBiesssMrab;PaBekInCabeNþaH
GasnñénsMBaFxagkñúgenAeBlEdlvtßúraveBjnig bUkbEnßmnUvkMlaMgén]bkrN_rMj½r.
elIkElgsMrab;RbtibtþikarN_cak;kMralEdlKYreGayTukcitþ)an karrMj½rEdkBRgwgRtUv)anelIkElg.
sUm,IEtvamanRbsiT§iPaBk¾eday karRtYtBinitücaM)ac;edIm,IkarBarrMj½relIs KWBi)ak. dUcKñaenAeBlEdl
ebtugRtUv)ancak;CaeRcInRsTab; karrMj½rénEdkbBaÄrqøgcUlkñúgEpñkxøHénebtugrwgBIxageRkam GacmaneRKaH
mhnþray. eTaHCay:agNa karkt;cMNaMfa karrMj½reLIgnUvebtugmun nwgkkrwgcugeRkay eRkamlkçxNÐén kar
RtYtBinitüGacbegáInnUvPaBFn;énkMlaMgrbs;ebtugKYreGaykt;sMKal;nUvkat;bnßynUvrn§elIépÞebtug ¬rn§tUc²¦.
bec©keTsenH KWBi)akNas;kñúgkarRtYtBinitüsMrab;karGnuvtþn_TUeTAkñúgkarcak;ebtugéneRKOgbgÁúMbBaÄr b:uEnþva
manRbsiT§iPaBNas;sMrab;kMralbegðIyCamYynwg]bkrN_rMj½redayfamBl. karCIkedayEb:ledayeRbIéd
manRbsiT§iPaBCageKsMrab;ykecjnUvBBuHxül;enAelIépÞBum<.

viFIenH KWmanRbsiT§iPaBCaBiesssMrab;sMPar³Bum<EdlmanRCabTwkrelagRtUv)aneRbI nigsMrab;épÞEdl
manCMerleLIgelI. sMrab;KMeragsMNg;Fmμta
lkçxNÐepSgKñaénkarcak;RtUv)anrab;bBa©ÚlCaFmμtaEdleFVI[ karcg;)anedIm,Ipþl;dl;bnSMénbec©keTsepSg²
Edl)anBN’na.
karRbugRbytñ½CaTUeTAmYyEdlGacGnuvtþ )anKW ]bkrN_rMj½rbgðab;minRtUveRbIedIm,Icl½tebtugtamTisedAedke
T.
5>5 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMbBaÄr Concreting vertical element
Epñkxagkñúg énssrCaTUeTARtUv)aneFVIeGayCit vamanmaDFMsMrab;r)aEdkBRgwgebIeRboeFobCamYy nwg
maDénebtug ehIyvamankMBs;FMebIeRbobeFob nwgTMhMépÞkat;TTwg.
dUcenH ssrKYrRtUvcak;CabnþbnÞab; ebtugKYrRtUv)ancak;ekIneLIgmþg² kñúgCMerABI 2eTA 4ft
nigbgðab;[ hab;eday]bkrN_rMj½rxagkñúg. vaRtUv)anelIkeLIgbnÞab;BIkarekIneLIgmþg²
énkarcak;ebtugRtUv)anrMj½r. RbsinebIkarBnüaeBlkñúgkarpÁt;pÁg;ebtugekIteLIgmunnwgssrRtUv)anbBa©b;
esckþIxitxMCaxøaMgKYRtUveFVIy:ag NaecosvagmuxtMNr cold . enAeBlssrEdlcak;enAsl;RtUv)ancak;bnþ
karcak;bnþelIkTI1KYrEtman brimaNtictYcehIyKYrRtUvrMj½redIm,IeGayRCabcUlEpñkxagBImuny:agtictYc.
enAkñúgssrTaMgGs; nigCBa¢aMgEdlEdkBRgwgceg¥ót karcak;ebtugKYrcab;epþImCamYy 2 eTA 4ineday
grout . mü:agvijeTot fμRtsuHnigRtUv)aneRCIserIsdak;xag)at pþl;nUvlT§plénkarkekItsMbukXμúM. grout enH
KYrEtmansmamaRtEdlman slump RbEhlKña nwgebtug b¤eRcInCagbnþic b:uEnþRtUvmanpleFobénTwksuIm:g;t_
b¤ticCagenH. ¬visVkrexøHeBjcitþcab;epþImkarcak;bBaÄr CamYynwgl,ayEdlmansmmaRtesμIKñaénTwk suIm:g;t_
nigRKYsm:t;b:uEnþCamYynwgbrimaN1knøH énfμbMEbkFM dUcenAkñúgkarKitl,ay nigedIm,Icak;RsTab;cab;epþImkñúg
CMerABI 6eTA 12 in¦. enAeBlebtugRtUvcak;sMrab;CBa¢aMgn½ysMrab;karGnuvtþ)anedIm,IecosvagkarbMEbkFatu
rYmpSMRtUv)ancak;mineGayeRcInCag 24in kñúgmYyRsTab;eTAmYyRsTab;. RsTab;nimYy²KYrRtUvrMj½rdac;eday
ELkBIKña nigrkSaeGaymankMritkMBs;esÞIrEtesμIKña. sMrab;CBa¢aMgEdleRCACag 4ft ebtugKYrcak;CalkçN³bBaÄr
tambMBg;EdlGacbt;Ebn)an b¤TMlak;BIkMBs;RbEhl 8ft BIKña. bMBg;GacrwgnigGacbt;Ebnnig mkCaEpñkEdl
eKGacelIkeLIgtamkMritkMBs;énkarcak;ebtugekIneLIg. ebtugminGacbt;Ebn)an nigmkCaEpñkEdlGac
elIkeLIgtamkMritkMBs;énkarcak;ebtugekIneLIg. ebtugminKYrTukeGayFøak;esrI BIxagcugénbMBg;eT kMBs;
elIsBI 4ft karbMEbkFaturYmpSM nwgekIteLIg CamYynwgRKYsfμFM)øat eTAekonBum<edIm,IenACab;Epñkmçag. RsTab;

EdlbnþbnÞab;BIRsTab;dMbUgGacRtUv)anRCabcUleday]bkrN_rMj½rxagkñúgsMrab;CMerARbEhl 4 eTA 6in edIm,I
FananUvkarbBa©ÚlCamYyKñay:agsBVRKb;enAelIépÞRsTab;nimYy². karRCabcUleRCACagmunGacCaKuN
RbeyaCn_ ¬karrMj½reLIgvij¦ b:uEnþkarRtYtBinitüeRkamlkçxNÐkardæanEdlERbRbYl KWsMrab;karENnaM
énkarGnuvtþenH sMrab;kareRbIR)as;TUeTAminR)akdNas;.
lT§plénkarcak;minl¥enAkñúgCBa¢aMgCaerOy² RtUv)anGnuvtþ³ RsTab;bnÞab;CMerl RbsinebImanvtþman
TwkenaHnwgmansMbukXμúM nigelcTwk ehIyRbsinebIsñÚlRtUv)andak;CakMBs;bnþbnÞab;rhUtdl;karbnßyPaBFn;
énkMlaMgdl;eTA 50°taMgBI)atdl;kMBUl. karRbugRby½tñcaM)ac;xøHedIm,IecosevogT§iBlminl¥TaMgenHKW ³
-karcak;ebtugenAkñúgRsTab;kMritkMBs;tamry³KMlatbMBg;b¤ chute y:agCitsñit
-kuMcak;ebtugeBjCMerAenAral;cMNucénkarcak;
-minRtUvcl½tebtugtamTisedAedkeday]bkrN_rMj½r
- sMrab;CBa¢aMgEdl EvgnigeRCA kat;bnßy slump sMrab;RsTab;xagelIeK 2 eTA 3in BIeRkam slump
sMrab;RsTab;Edlcab;epþIm.
RbsinebIkarcak;ebtugRtUvEtTukeGayenAmYykEnøgcenøaHmuxtMNrsMNg;bøg;edk kMritkMBs;énkarcak;
mYyRsTab; karykecjnUv laitance nigPaBelIsTwk nigeFVIeGayRtg;kMritkMBs;sMNg;muxtMNr RbsinebIGac
eFVIeTA)anP¢ab;duMkMNat;eQId¾tUceTAelIépÞRbQménBum<.
5>6 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMedk concreting horizontal element
sMrab;épÞEdlnwgRtUvRKbnigkarBarRbqaMgnwgrMj½r nigGakasFatukarRbugRby½tñCaBiesstictYcRtUvkar
caM)ac;.
sMrab;ebtugkMral viFIénkarcak;EdleFVsRbEhspþl;nUvlT§plénkarbMEbkFaturYmpSMtamTisedAedk
CamYynwglkçN³Edlcg;)ansMrab;TItaMgxus épÞxagelIEdlmanPaBelIsénTwk nigsarFatum:t;CamYynwgPaB
Fn;énrMj½r nigGakasFatutucnigkarrYmmaDx<s;. sMrab;épÞénkMralmYypÞaMg (one course slab) ebtugEdlman
slump Tab nigGb,brmaénrMj½r nigkarBRgabépÞebtugRtUv)aneKRtUvkarcaM)ac;. kareFVI screeding Pøam²
eday ]bkrN_ screed rMj½redayfamBl KWmanRbeyaCn_kñúgkarBRgayebtugEdlman slump
TabnigKuNPaBx<s;. KμankarBRgabbegðIyteTAeToteTKYrRtUvGnuvtþrhUtdl;brimaNTwkesrIminTan;manelc
ecjrUbrag. ]bkrN_kþavIbgVilbgðab;edayfamBl GacrMlIgebtugEdlman slump TabNas;kñúgdMNak;
kalenH. karrMlIgedaysøabRBacug bBa©b;KYrRtUvBnüaeBl RbsinebIcaM)ac;rhUtdl;épÞGaRT)anTMgn;énRsTab;

សៀវភៅមូលដ្ឋានគ្រឺះទូទៅគ្រឿងបង្គុំនៃសំណង់.pdf

សៀវភៅមូលដ្ឋានគ្រឺះទូទៅគ្រឿងបង្គុំនៃសំណង់.pdf

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to សៀវភៅមូលដ្ឋានគ្រឺះទូទៅគ្រឿងបង្គុំនៃសំណង់.pdf

Similar to សៀវភៅមូលដ្ឋានគ្រឺះទូទៅគ្រឿងបង្គុំនៃសំណង់.pdf (19)

More from vapheng

More from vapheng (18)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

សៀវភៅមូលដ្ឋានគ្រឺះទូទៅគ្រឿងបង្គុំនៃសំណង់.pdf