Bacillus and Clostridium Endosporulation Similarities

Bacillus And Clostridium Similarities
The proposed endosporulation pathways in Bacillus and Clostridium have many similarities and
differences which are summarized in Table 1. Their major similarity is their respective locations on
the bacterial cell. The σE and σK factors of both Bacillus and Clostridium are both localized in the
mother cell while the σF and σG factors are localized in the forespore. One difference between the
two genera is the stages wherein the activity of these sigma factors are detected. In Bacillus, the
activities of σEF and σGK are only observed during the early and late stages of endosporulation
respectively. On the other hand, the activities of all four sigma factors have been detected all
6
throughout the duration of the endosporulation process in Clostridium. ... Show more content on
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However, upon the addition of INF55, a multidrug resistance pump inhibitor, the effect of berberine
against germinated spores has been enhanced. Furthermore, the addition of INF55 was shown to be
more effective in dormant spores as opposed to germinating spores. In conclusion, the spores need
to first be in the germination stage in order for berberine to take effect. On the other hand, if INF55
is supplemented, even dormant spores can be affected by berberine (Wang, S.). The effects of
berberine should also be tested on other sporulating bacteria such as Clostridium. As mentioned
above, Bacillus and Clostridium undergo slightly varied endosporulation pathways. Thus, it is
interesting to know if this occurrence has an implication to the effectivity of berberine against
spores. Also, more studies on natural products with antibacterial properties, especially those that can
affect the highly stress resistant endospore, should be undertaken. These compounds may target the
sigma factors described above in order to disrupt endosporulation. Since vegetative cells are more
susceptible to antibiotics and other management procedures, disruption of endosporulation by
targeting the sigma factors may help reduce, if not eradicate the problems brought about by spore
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Anthrax and Bioterrorism Essay
According to Willey, Sherwood, and Woolverton, anthrax is a highly infectious animal disease,
caused by the bacterium B. antrhacis, that can be transmitted to humans by direct contact with
infected animals, such as cattle, goats, sheep, etc., or their products, especially hides, and its spores
can remain viable in soil and animal products for decades. Therefore, it is more likely to be
transmitted to those humans continuously in contact with such animals or areas in which infected
animals have had contact, even if it was years ago. It can also be transmitted to other animals that
may be feeding or living with infected animals or in the infected areas. There are three main types of
infections caused by the spores of this bacterium: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"The bacterium binds EF and LF and is engulfed by the plasma membrane and carried to an
endosome, which is pierced, allowing EF and LF to enter the cytoplasm. Toxin activity then results
in fluid release, which causes an edema. As these macrophages continue to die, they release their
lysosomal contents, leading to fever, internal bleeding, septic shock, and rapid death" (Willey,
Sherwood, Woolverton, p 485). Common preventions and control of anthrax is to receive a
vaccination, which was originally thought of by Pasteur, or to vaccinate the animals likely to obtain
the disease.
Moreover, when one thinks of terrorist attacks, the first things he/she may think of are crashing
planes, nuclear missiles, and bombs. He/she may not, however, think of using microorganisms, such
as anthrax, to start a biological warfare. "In the United States the incidence of naturally acquired
anthrax is extremely rare i.e, 1 to 2 cases of cutaneous disease per year. In the year 2001 intentional
contamination lead to 22 cases of anthrax (11 cutaneous, 11 inhalational) in the United States.
Therefore, the spores of Bacillus anthracis are found to be a chosen weapon of bioterrorism
(Saraswathi, Padmavathy, Mamatha, et al, p 2044). B. anthracis was placed in postal letters, where
they would be released

What Is The Causes Of Fungal Diseases?
fixation. Pea is liable to be attack by many bacterial, fungal, viral, nematode diseases in addition to
physiological disorder. However, fungal diseases, especially rust is considered one of the major
destructive diseases affecting the crop yield (Hagedron, 1984 and Kraft, and Pfleger, 2001),
especially in the north and middle parts of the Delta in Egypt and several countries in the world
(Abada et al., 1997; Gupta and Shayam, 1998 and Parilli et al., 2015). The fungus Uromyces pisi is
a heteroecious rust pathogen, completing its life cycle on two host plant species. The sexual stages
are completed on Euphorbia cyparissias (cypress spurge), while the asexual lifecycle stages are
completed on leguminous crop hosts such as Lathyrus, Orobus, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The nectar contains fungal gametes (spermatia) that are transferred by nectar feeding insects
(including bees and ants) from one fungal mating type to another. Once fertilization has occurred,
aeciospores are released which infect leguminous host plants including field peas. Managing plant
diseases with fungicides sometimes gives good results. However, improper use of fungicides leads
mostly to environmental pollution, disasters throughout the world and the phenomena of resistance
to the causal pathogens (Brewer and Larkin, 2005). Therefore, to overcome these difficulties, it is
urgent to apply alternative safe efficient methods against such disease or at least rationalization their
application. Biological control is considered an important approach of agricultural biotechnology in
recent years for controlling many fungal plant pathogens. Both Bacillus and Trichoderma spp. are
the most promising and effective bioagents against various plant pathogenic fungi (Deshmukh et al.,
2010; Barakat et al., 2014 and Ragab et al., 2015). Trichoderma as antagonist is much more
complex, that is nutrient competition, hyperparasitism, antibiosis, space and cell wall degrading
enzymes (Abd–El–Khair et al., 2010 and Junid et al., 2013). It was also found that there is a large
variety of volatile secondary metabolites produced by Trichoderma spp. such as ethylene, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, aldehydes and

Lab Experiment: The Effectiveness of Different...
Objectives:
1. To investigate the effect of different antibiotics on bacteria
2. To develop problem solving and experimental skills, for example, information is accurately
processed and presented, experimental procedures are planned, designed and evaluated properly,
producing valid results, recording results, and valid conclusion is drawn.
3. To develop the aseptic techniques for preparing agar plates and bacterial culture.
Problem statement
Do antibiotics have the same effect on killing different types of bacteria?
Abstract:
The main objective of this experiment is to investigate the effect of different types of antibiotics on
bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli. Some of the main methods used in this experiment ...
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Preventing the formation of cross–linking in the cell wall
3. Damaging the cell membranes of bacteria
4. Preventing the transcription or translation of microbial genes (mechanism for tetracyclines)
5. Stopping the bacterial DNA from coiling up
Examples of antibiotics that are commonly used in infection treatment include: gentamycin,
tetracycline, streptomycin, and carbenicillin
Bacteria
Bacillus subtilis is rod–shaped and has the ability to form a tough, protective endospore, allow the
organism to tolerate extreme conditions. Some uses of Bacillus subtilis includes using as a model
organism for laboratory studies. It can also be genetically modified to convert explosives into
harmless compound of nitrogen, water and carbon dioxide. (Wikipedia, 2010)
A close up view of B. subtilis bacterium. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis
Escherichia coli are commonly found in lower intestine of warm blooded animals. Most E. coli are
harmless. The bacteria can be grown easily and its genetics are relatively simple and easy to study,
making it the best–studied prokaryotic organism. Certain strains of E. coli can produce toxins that
can cause food poisoning when eating unwashed vegetables. (Wikipedia, 2010)

Escherichia coli. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli
Aseptic techniques
Aseptic techniques refer to the procedures that performed under

Bacillus Subtilis Essay
Bacillus subtillus:
Bacillus subtilis is a Gram–positive bacterium,rod–shaped,catalase–positive.It was originally named
Vibrio subtilis.Bacillus subtilis by Ferdinand Cohn in 1872.As other members of the genus Bacillus.
it can form an endospore,B. subtilis is a facultative aerobe.And considered as an obligate aerobe
until 1998. B. subtilis is heavily flagellated.
Whice gives it the ability to move quickly in liquids.B.subtilis has proven highly amenable to
genetic manipulation,and has become widely adopted as a model organism for laboratory
studies,especially of sporulation.which is a simplified example of cellular differentiation.In terms of
popularity as a laboratory model organism.
This species is commonly found in the upper layers of the soil.B. subtilis is a normal gut
commensally in humans.And the density of spores found in soil about 106 spores per gram to that
found in human feces about 104 spores per gram.soThe number of spores found in the human gut
was too high to be attributed solely to consumption through food contamination.
Bacillus species can be obligate aerobes (oxygen reliant),or facultative anaerobes.They will test
positive for the enzymecatalase when there has been oxygen used or present. And ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
subtilis were popular worldwide before the introduction of antibiotics as Immunostimulatory agent
to treatment of gastrointestinal and urinary tract diseases.It was used as an alternative
medicine,which upon digestion has been found to significantly stimulate broad–spectrum immune
activity including activation secretion of the specific antibodies IgM, IgG and IgA. Release of CpG
dinucleotides Inducing INFA/Y producing activity of leukocytes and cytokines important in the
development of cytotoxicity towards tumor cells.It was marketed throughout America and Europe
from 1946 as an immunostimulatory aid in the treatment of gut and urinary tract diseases such as
Rotavirus and Shigellosis.

A Report On Bacillus Anthracis
Bacillus Anthracis
Cheyenne Wright
Iowa Western Community College
Heather Babka, Instructor
Microbiology
8 February 2017
Bacillus Anthracis:
1. Introduction
a) Bacillus anthracis is a gram–positive, rod–shaped, aerobic bacterium, that presents its self in long
chains (Todar). It is 1 × 2 μm in size and contains no flagella or pilli (Spencer). Although, B.
anthracis is non–motile, it does undergo the process of sporulation (Spencer). These spores are
typically oval shaped and found in soil (Todar). In virulent strains of B. anthracis, a slime layer or
capsule forms to protect the bacterium from dangers in the environment, such as antibiotics
(Spencer). B. anthracis produces a toxin that consists of three factors, which includes ... Show more
b) More commonly, anthrax is found in regions of the Caribbean, Southern and Eastern Europe,
Central and Southern Asia, Central and South American, and some parts of Africa (CDC).
5. How is it spread or transmitted?
a) In animals, they become infected by inhaling or ingesting the spores from contaminated soil or
water (CDC).
b) Humans can be infected once one's body encounters an anthrax endospore. Spores enter the body
and become active, once they have become active the bacteria can multiply (CDC). The endospores
can enter the body in many different ways, such as inhalation, ingestion, a cut on the skin, or even
being injected.
6. What are the symptoms (CDC)
a) Cutaneous Anthrax
i. Small blisters or bumps on skin that may itch ii. Swelling might be present around bilster iii. A
skin sore or ulcer with a black center appears after the blister or bumps, characterized with no pain.
iv. Sore is usually located on the hands, arms, neck or face.
b) Inhalation Anthrax (CDC)
i. Fever along with chills, body aches ii. Chest Discomfort iii. Shortness of breah iv. Dizziness and
confusion
v. Cough vi. Nausea, vomiting and or stomach pains vii. Headache and extreme tiredness viii.
Sweats

c) Gastrointestinal Anthrax (CDC)
i. Fever along with chills ii. Swelling of neck or neck glands iii. Sore throat iv. Painful swallowing
v. Hoarseness vi. Nausea and vomiting, bloody vomiting
vii.

Spices And Its Effect On Food
Introduction–
Spices, have been around for thousands of years. Spices would be used in food to flavor it, giving it
tastes like spicy or sour. The spices back then would be cherished as tradeable goods to other
countries for a trade of currency, but soon the early cultures found out that the spices they were
trading could be used to prevent food spoilage. As an antimicrobial, many spices could be helpful to
get rid of the bacteria that can be found on food, or to preserve the food as well. Bacteria can spread
from anywhere, through the air, from the ground, and even from a person's hands right when food is
about to be eaten. There are many spices used to preserve food like onions, cinnamon, cloves,
mustard, rosemary, sage, and black peppers. These kinds of spices are classified as either strong,
medium, or weak because of their inhibitory effect that they have with bacteria. (Documents/Spices)
Cinnamon is one of these spices with these strong inhibitory effects. Cinnamon refers to the dried
bark of different types of beverages and chocolates it can be made into. Cinnamon would be used
not only for food, but also used when making cosmetics. Not only can cinnamon be used for food,
but as a health promoting–agent, to treat inflammation, stomachaches, and urinary infections.
(ncbi.nih.gov) Researchers have found that cinnamon can be used as an antimicrobial factor to get
reduce growth bacteria. (ncbi.nih.gov) Researchers soon studied that cinnamon was one of the
strongest and

Argumentative Essay On Anthrax
Introduction
Anthrax is most commonly known as the 2001 "Bioterror" attacks ( CDC, 2016). After 9/11 several
letters tainted with Anthrax were sent out, infecting and killing several people in a matter of days.
The word Anthrax derived from Greek word Anthrakos, that means coal. It is believed to have a
history that stems from the book of Exodus 5th and 6th plagues. This story tells how Moses took
soot and tossed it into the air. The dust covered all of Egypt and boils covered Pharoah's animals and
his people (Decker , 2003). Bacillus anthracis is the organism that causes anthrax. The spore–
bearing bacillus can lay dormant in the soil for years or decades. In the soil is where the bacteria
waits for a host to multiply and vegetate. Anthrax is mainly a disease of animals such as sheep,
cattle, and goats. The animals would get infected when in contact with contaminated soil. Humans
became infected, when in contact with the infected animals. In the late 19th century German
Physician Robert Koch conducted an experiment proving that Anthrax was the cause of ... Show
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Most common regions where Anthrax is a high risk is in Central and South America, sub–Saharan
Africa, Central and Southwestern Asia, and Southern and Eastern Europe; rarely in the U.S (CDC,
2015). These are places where animals are not getting vaccinated regularly (CDC, 2015). Humans
that are more vulnerable are those who come in contact with livestock or by–products contaminated
with anthrax spores. For example; people that work in slaughterhouses, tanners, veterinarians, and
farmers (Victoria's, Department of Health, 2014). Early 19th–century Anthrax would occur at an
estimated rate of 130 cases annually, that number declined between 2000. 2002. 2001 was the most
recent Anthrax outbreak (CDC, 2009). After September 11, 22 cases were identified due to the
mailroom bioterror attack (Victoria's, Department of Health,

sterilization Essay
The only way to ensure that sterilization has occurred is to use the biological monitoring methods.
This is because these are the only tests done which show whether or not actual microbial life has
been killed. Biological methods are the only ones which are recommended by the CDC (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention), the AAMI (Association for the Advancement of Medical
Instrumentation), the AMA (American Medical Association), OSHA, and OSAP (Office Safety and
Asepsis Procedures Foundation)
Biological monitoring is basically evaluating a sterilization process by rendering highly resistant
bacterial spores biologically inert. The highly ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After exposure they are incubated along with an unexposed or control group of spores for the same
period of time. If sterilization has occurred the spores which were exposed will not multiply. The
control group should grow microorganisms and display a change in color. If this does not occur,
then it's spores have been inactivated and the test is invalid. This is because if the control spores
were inactivated, it is possible the spores which were exposed also became inactivated prior to
sterilization. Every item sterilized in the load with the indicator involved in an invalid test is
considered unsterile. This is the case whenever there is an uncertainty about either the indicator of
the control.
Biological testing should be done often. The CDC recommends one spore strip test per sterilizer per
week. The biological indicator should be placed in the center of the largest and most difficult to
sterilize pack. The pack should then be placed horizontally in the lower front portion of the of the
sterilizer chamber to make the sterilization process as difficult as possible. Testing should be done
repeatedly every time a sterilizer is calibrated, repaired, or relocated to make sure the machine is
working correctly. It should also be performed whenever a new type of packaging material or tray is
used, after training new sterilization personnel, and after any change in sterilizer loading procedures.

The Effects Of Fungal Diseases
diseases in addition to physiological disorder. However, fungal diseases, especially rust is
considered one of the major destructive diseases affecting the crop yield (Hagedron, 1984 and Kraft,
and Pfleger, 2001), especially in the north and middle parts of the Delta in Egypt and several
countries in the world (Abada et al., 1997; Gupta and Shayam, 1998 and Parilli et al., 2015).
The fungus Uromyces pisi is a heteroecious rust pathogen, completing its life cycle on two host
plant species. The sexual stages are completed on Euphorbia cyparissias (cypress spurge), while the
asexual lifecycle stages are completed on leguminous crop hosts such as Lathyrus, Orobus, Pisum
and Vicia spp. E. cyparissias is an erect, branching, rhizomatous ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The nectar contains fungal gametes (spermatia) that are transferred by nectar feeding insects
(including bees and ants) from one fungal mating type to another. Once fertilization has occurred,
aeciospores are released which infect leguminous host plants including field peas.
Managing plant diseases with fungicides sometimes gives good results. However, improper use of
fungicides leads mostly to environmental pollution, disasters throughout the world and the
phenomena of resistance to the causal pathogens (Brewer and Larkin, 2005). Therefore, to
overcome these difficulties, it is urgent to apply alternative safe efficient methods against such
disease or at least rationalization their application.
Biological control is considered an important approach of agricultural biotechnology in recent years
for controlling many fungal plant pathogens. Both Bacillus and Trichoderma spp. are the most
promising and effective bioagents against
various plant pathogenic fungi (Deshmukh et al., 2010; Barakat et al., 2014 and Ragab et al., 2015).
Trichoderma as antagonist is much more complex, that is nutrient competition, hyperparasitism,
antibiosis, space and cell wall degrading enzymes (Abd–El–Khair et al., 2010 and Junid et al.,
2013).
It was also found that there is a large variety of volatile secondary metabolites produced by
Trichoderma spp. such as ethylene, carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, aldehydes and ketones which
play an important role in controlling many plant

Essential Component Of Public Infrastructure
Introduction
Concrete is one of the essential component of public infrastructure and most buildings. It can only
be more effective if we used reinforcement with it, because tensile strength without reinforcement is
very low. It usually get cracked with time as it is brittle in property. There are some more causes of
these cracks are shrinkage, inadequate water for hydration... etc. these cracks causes reinforcement
exposes to atmosphere now reinforcement come into contact of O2 & H2O. That can cause
corrosion which results in weaken of structure. That being said concrete is a high maintenance
material. Concrete cracks and suffer wear and tear. Concrete is not as much flexible that it can
handle significant amount of strain. These problems occurs due to Standard Concrete can be solved
by self–healing bacterial concrete. This is a concrete which is provided with self–healing agent in
form of bacteria. This type of concrete consist of mixture of bacteria as a healing agent and calcium
lactate Ca(C3H5O2)2 as a food that support bacteria at the time when bacteria comes in active form.
Now healing agent (bacteria) feeds on food (calcium lactate) provided, can heal the damage as well
as reduce the amount of damages sustained by the concrete structure.
SELF–HEALING BACTERIAL CONCRETE
Fig 1.1 self–healing bacterial concrete
In several recent studies autogenously crack–healing capacity of concrete has been recognized. Due
to presence of secondary hydration of

What are Aseptic Techniques?
Introduction
Aseptic techniques were practised by microbiologists in order to eliminate unwanted
microorganisms in their working environment, protecting those microbiologists from the potential
pathogenic microorganisms and preventing the contaminations of microorganisms to the working
environment (Henretig & King, 2008). One of the ways for practising of aseptic technique is the
sterilization of lab equipment such as glassware; liquids such as diluents can be sterilize using the
autoclave machine, which using moist heat or saturated steam for sterilization (Henretig & King,
2008).
The moist heat autoclave machine uses steam as an agent of sterilization. It is ideal for the
elimination of bacterial spores than using dry heat. The bacterial spores of bacillus
stearothermophilus using in this experiment is a thermophilic bacterium in which it's range of
optimum temperature of 55–60°C; when the autoclave machine was set to a temperature of 121°C,
pressure of 101kPa and it was operated for 15 minutes . Thus, the bacterial spores can be destroyed
and eliminated in such conditions in the autoclave machine (Parija, 2009). The complete
sterilization can be achieved if the parameters of the autoclave were followed.
During the autoclaving process, bacteria were exposed to high temperature generated by the
autoclave machine, high pressure was produced in order to produce a high saturated steam. The
steam produced is expanded by the water volume of 785 times, thus a little volume of

The Pros And Cons Of Bioterrorism
Bioterrorism is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, toxins or other harmful agents to cause
illness or death in people, livestock, or crops. These agents are typically found in nature, but could
be mutated or altered to increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current
medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment. Bacillus anthracis is one of
the most popular agents to be used in a bioterrorism attack. Anthrax could be used in many forms,
for example, it can be placed into letters and mailed, much like the 2001 anthrax attack, anthrax can
be released into the air where the spores can be easily blown by the wind and inhaled or can be
carried around on objects such as people's clothes to which it has ... Show more content on
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Anthrax is an infectious disease caused by gram–positive, rod–shaped bacteria known as Bacillus
anthracis. Anthrax can be transmitted via airborne methods such as bioterrorism, where it is used as
a weapon and released into the air to cause infection, or by breathing in anthrax spores from infected
animal products such as wool. Humans can also become infected by direct contact, from handling
infected animal products, or by vehicular transmission from eating undercooked meat from infected
animals causing gastrointestinal anthrax. Anthrax is not passed from one person to another. (Arthur
Schoenstadt, 2017).
The virulence factors of anthrax are encoded on two large pathogenicity–related plasmids. The
virulence factors of anthrax are the capsule and endotoxin production (Fasanella, 2013). The capsule
of the bacterium aids in attachment to the host and prevents phagocytosis by the host immune
system. Once the anthrax spores are lodged into the skin or lungs, the bacteria rapidly begin growth,
producing a deadly tripartite endotoxin which affects cell metabolism. This toxin is composed of
three proteins which are the Protective Antigen (PA), the Edema Factor (EF) and the Lethal Factor

Bacillus Research Paper
Bacteria of the Bacillus genus are known to be rod shaped and are usually motile. They are
endospore–forming and obligate aerobes, which means that these cells need oxygen to live. Bacillus
are Gram–variable. They all begin as Gram positive; however, after time and aging of these cells,
there is a decrease in peptidoglycan which is why they are considered gram variable. These cells can
be arranged in a variety of different ways, including chains, pairs, and singles. The Bacillus genus
consists of approximately 370 different species (Priest et al., 1988). However, of all those 370
species, the only two that are pathogenic to humans are Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus cereus. Not
only does the Bacillus genus affect humans, but there are some ... Show more content on
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The disinfecting solution must be extremely strong. Phenol 5% is the best chemical to use and must
be applied for a long period to be optimally effective. The key in preventing a spread of infection is
quickly diagnosing and treating the patient. Treatment for diagnosed cases is available through
antibiotics. This can also benefit those exposed or at risk of exposure. Antibiotic therapy is proven
to be the most successful treatment of anthrax. Bacillus anthracis is highly susceptible to the
antibiotic Penicillin; therefore, this is the agent used to treat patients infected with

Case Study Of Isoprene
1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Isoprene: a building block molecule for isoprenoid family Isoprene, 2–
methyl–1,3–butadiene,is a volatile and colorless 5–carbon containing hydrocarbon and has boiling
point at 34°C (Fig. 1.1). This is widely used as a building block for the many members of the
isoprenoid family and moreover this family also includes the largest family of natural products with
a variety of applications such as in production of chemicals and pharmaceuticals (Marienhagen &
Bott 2013) (Hong et al. 2012) Fig. 1.1 Chemical drawing of isoprene Besides, being a building
block for isoprenoid family, isoprene isextensively used in the industries for making of polyisoprene
(Isoprene rubber, IR), styrene–isoprene–styrene copolymer (SIS rubber) and isobutylene–isoprene
copolymer (IIR) (fig 1.2). Approximately, 70% of world's consumption of isoprene is for
polyisoprene, which is mainly used in tyres. Isoprene's next–biggest consumption is for styrene
isoprene styrene copolymers that are used mainly in adhesives and sealants. In addition,
isobutylene–isoprene copolymer is used in the production of butyl rubber. These applications of
isoprene comprise 95% of isoprene application worldwide, while a comparatively small amount of
isoprene i.e. 5% is converted into its ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These petrochemical sources are in high demand for various purposes, which may cause increase in
cost of these sources in coming years. Moreover, the global warming concerns are restricting the
exploitation of petrochemical sources for isoprene production. So, current industrial processes of
isoprene production are facing many challenges to stand firm in the global market. It is evident that
the petrochemical sources are exhaustible and may deplete in few decades, thus there is need to
generate a sustainable and renewable source for isoprene

Origin And Nature Of Anthrax
Origin and nature The earliest appearance of Anthrax occurred around 700 BC mostly affecting
cattle, sheep, horses, and oxen. The people of Egypt and Mesopotamia at the time called it the 5th
plague and the name Anthrax derives from the word coal, similar to the black skin leisures it
produces. The first clinical cases of Anthrax were described around 1752 and 1769 by Maret and
Fournier respectively (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). Scientist Robert Koch was
the first to study Bacillus anthracis in a clinical setting, in 1877 he developed the first microbial
etiology. It was in the 1800's that Anthrax was titled the "woolsorters disease" due to its relation
with animal hair or wool from sheep (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). Bacillus
anthracis is an aerobic, spore–forming, nonmotile, monomorphic bacteria with little to no genetic
diversity. Anthrax spores are able to lay dormant for long periods of time allowing it to survive more
than 40 years in the soil, 80 years in a vial, and 200 years in bones (Friedlander, 336). Bacillus
anthracis is therefore known as a risk–group 3 organism (Agren et al., 2014). This is part of what
makes Anthrax such a risk, but more commonly Anthrax contamination in the soil only lasts for a
few months and rarely for more than a few years when microbial competition exists in that soil
(Friedlander, 336). It was without this information that traders, shipped infected sheep, cattle and
other animals around

Biological Macromolecule Polyhydroxybutyrate ( Phb )
ABSTRACT
The important biological macromolecule polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) producing Bacillus subtilis
was isolated from the sewage sample and identified by means of 16S rRNA analysis. The renewable
nature and biodegradability of PHBs make them suitable materials to replace synthetic plastics in
many applications. Currently their production is expensive, but these plastics are only in their first
stage of commercial development. In the present study the physico–chemical parameters such as
Time, Temperature and pH were optimized for increased production of PHB. It was found that
maximum production of PHB was observed at 48th hour (328µg/ml) of incubation time,
temperature 370C (336µg/ml), pH 7.5 (362 µg/ml). The low cost production media was developed
using fruit peel extract and sugarcane industrial waste. The amount of PHB produced using low cost
production media in fruit peel (234µg/ml) and industrial waste (218µg/ml). The PHB was
characterized using FTIR and NMR analysis.
Keywords: polyhydroxybutyrate, Bacillus subtilis, optimization, INTRODUCTION The human
population has led to the accumulation of huge amounts of non–degradable waste materials across
our planet. The problem of environmental pollution was caused by indiscriminate dumping of
plastic waste has assumed global proportions. They are used in almost all industries, especially for
packaging and they account for more than 50% of total consumption, especially they are used for
bottling and baling. They

Bacillus Badius
The Identification of Bacillus Badius
[pic]
Hannah Melanchuk Dr. Robert Suran May 1 2013 Microbiology
Abstract Over a three week time span I was able to successfully identify an unknown
microorganism by combining the results of several tests. The first test was the Gram stain test which
showed the microorganism was Gram positive and rod shaped. Using an Unknown Identification
Flowchart, I proceeded to inoculate a Starch plate. In week 2, I analyzed the Starch plate and was
able to determine that the results for Starch Hydrolysis were negative due to the dark color. Next, I
inoculated Simmons Citrate Agar slants. By week 3 I was able to analyze the Citrate Agar, which
tested negative ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The decolorized Gram negative cells are stained pink. With the results from the Gram stain I was
able to follow the "Unknown Identification Flowchart" to the next step, which was to prepare for the
Starch Hydrolysis Test by inoculating a starch plate. Starch is a polysaccharide made up of glucose
molecules. Some bacteria have an enzyme called amylase which breaks starch down into glucose
subunits. The Starch Hydrolysis test is used to determine the production of amylase. Iodine, which
is the mordant used in Gram staining, is used in this test to detect the presence of starch. In order to
do the Starch Hydrolysis Test I first inoculated a starch plate by using aseptic technique. I streaked
the middle of the starch plate with the bacteria into a single line. Then, I let it incubate overnight at
37°C. In week 2, after I added several drops of Gram's iodine to the starch plate it was ready to be
analyzed for starch hydrolysis. The iodine complexes with starch to form a blue–black color in the
culture. Clear halos surrounding colonies is the result of their ability to digest the starch due to the
presence of amylase. With the results of the Starch Hydrolysis Test I preceded to the final test which
is the Citrate Test. Using aseptic technique, I streaked the organism onto the surface of the
Simmons' citrate slant and let it incubate overnight at 37°C. The Citrate Test determines if the
organism is able to

Bacillus Smithii Research Paper
Bacillus Smithii is a thermophile bacteria, facultative anaerobic. It had been distinguished from
B.coagulans and announced as another species from 1988. (Nakamura et al., 1988). Main various
from B.coagulans are the competence to maintain in higher maximum temperature, and L (+) –
Lactic acid is predominantly produced. (2). Morphology, it is gram positive rods and motile by
peritrichous flagellation. The diameter of the cell is around 0.8 x1.0 x 5.0–6.0 um. As it is
Thermophile this give several benefits including lower contamination risks and cooling cost, and
B.smithii have a large growth temperature range (25–65 degree) and pH (5.5–7.0) which help
stability from temperature fluctuations. (ELKE). On account of wide range of temperature, pH and
ability to apply broad range of carbon sources in the medium and especially high production of
lactic acid make B.smithii an interesting microorganism for biotechnological application (elke,
bosma et al).
(Why doing this research (byproduct lactic acid / minimize byproduct/ no gene) ... Show more
To optimize lactic acid production pathway, knocking out or reducing by–product prediction
improving the lactic acid yield. From Elleke F. Bosma thesis "Isolation characterization and
engineering of bacillus smithii" genome of thermophilic smithii was fully sequenced and
determined which consist of 3,368,778 bp chromosome and 12,514 bp plasmid. Unfortunately, b.
smithii is absence of the genes coding for phosphotransacetylast and acetate kinase which form the
standard acetate production pathway in bacteria(Elke p.98) The fact that B.smithii produces
significant amount of acetate from glucose indicates that an alternative pathway and gene are
involved. (read more in theoretical background

Anthrax Research Paper
Bacillus anthracis is the causing agent of anthrax, a serious zoonotic disease that can affect human
cutaneous, respiratory and gastrointestinal routes. A new form of anthrax, injectional anthrax, has
recently emerged in heroin abusers in Europe. Anthrax is especially deadly in patients with this
form. Ongoing research continues to take place to find effective antibiotics and sterilization methods
against B. anthracis, some of which will be explored in this review.
Bacillus anthracis
The name anthracis is derived from the greek word for coal, anthrakis. This is because B. anthracis
induced lesions will appear black (1). This bacterium is very large (1–1.5×3–10 μm in dimension)
and is a Gram positive, spore–bearing rod. The cells also have ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The majority of the world's poppy resin production is in Afghanistan (9). However, strain typing has
lead scientists to believe that there may have been a single contamination event in the proximity of
Turkey. Accidental contamination may have occurred through heroin transportation in animal hides
or soil contaminated processing equipment

Plant Parasitic Nematodes Are Important Factors Affecting...
Plant parasitic nematodes are important factors affecting crop yield in all agricultural production
zone, they cause global losses to crop plants with an estimated loss of ≥100 billion US$ per year
Chitwood, 2003. They have been identified as one of the major pests affecting vegetables
production throughout the world, particularly, in the tropical and sub–tropical regions. More than 60
different species representing 19 genera of plant parasitic nematodes attack vegetables but the most
destructive nematode is the root–knot nematodes which belongs to the genus Meloidogyne which
considered one of the most economically important group of plant–parasitic nematode cause
damage and high yield losses on most cultivated vegetables throughout the world. Over the past few
decades, producers have relied mainly on nematicides and chemical fertilizers to control plant
parasitic nematodes and improved soil fertility. But, continuing environmental problems associated
with the thriving use of agrochemicals and the recent drive to produce food free of chemical
residues have compelled nematologists worldwide to seek for alternative environmentally friend and
safe methods for management crop production. Biological control using microorganisms with the
ability to antagonize nematodes represent realistic alternatives to chemical nematicides. Plant
Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria PHPR are at present a promising non–chemical alternative for
controlling a number of plant parasitic nematodes and

Anthrax Is A Disease Of Herbivores And Commonly
Introduction
Anthrax is a disease of herbivores and commonly infects the human through direct contact with the
infected animals or ingests contaminated animal products. The causative agent of anthrax is Bacillus
anthracis, rod–shaped, gram–positive bacteria and able to form endospore. [1] The spores of bacillus
anthracis could affect both humans and animals through different routes and lead to a variety of
clinical significant. Cutaneous, inhalational and gastrointestinal anthrax are the most well–known
diseases caused by bacillus anthracis. The recent Anthrax outbreak in 2009 resulted in injectional
anthrax, an anthrax disease that affects heroin users. [2] In this essay, the main focus is on
injectional anthrax including a briefly description of Bacillus anthracis, the range of symptoms it
may cause when injected into heroin users and the discussion of the methods to inactivate B.
anthracis spores.
Bacillus anthracis
Anthracis belongs to genus Bacillus, rod–shaped, gram–positive bacteria. Its special characteristic is
their ability to form dormant endospores in response to extreme conditions including nutrient
deprivation and other environmental factors. The spores are antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance
enables the organism to survive and endure in such unfavorable conditions. B.anthracis is an
extremely virulent pathogen and the causative agent of anthrax, the disease in mammal known as
cutaneous, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal anthrax and injectional anthrax

Anthrax has proved its presence significant in the history of microbiology since biblical times,
causing disease worldwide in livestock and humans. Although the natural threat for the average
person of contracting anthrax is quite low in the developed world, this disease was thrust into the
spotlight in 2001 following a bioterrorism attack in the United States. Letters containing gram
amounts of anthrax spores were sent to a magazine in the United States, infecting 11 people with
cutaneous anthrax and 11 people with inhalational anthrax, and five people died. Once thought to be
a relatively obscure disease, this attack created an international interest in the biology and
pathophysiology of anthrax. Bacillus anthracis, the bacteria that causes ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
anthracis can infect humans is by inhalation. This way of contracting anthrax is rarer and should be
taken seriously because it raises the possibility of the intentional spread of spores. This form is also
much more dangerous than a cutaneous infection, because even with the use of antibiotics and
antiserum, the mortality rate can still be higher than 90%. Early diagnosis and the implementation of
antibiotics are crucial for survival. In the 19th century, it was known as "woolsorter's disease",
where factory workers handling raw animal products such as wool fell ill with anthrax. In the
sorting process, the rustled contaminated products would send spores airborne, finding their way
into the respiratory tracts of the workers. The alveolar phagocytes consume the bacteria, carrying
them into the lymphatic system where they break free and are released into circulation. The
prodromal stage of infection closely resembles that of the flu: headache, malaise, fatigue,
photophobia, dry cough. But not too long after more severe symptoms can develop, such as high
fever, respiratory distress, difficulty breathing, intense sweating, chest pain and confusion. These
symptoms can indicate bacteremia, and the diagnosis and immediate treatment of antibiotics are
important in this stage of infection. If the appropriate steps are not carried out, sepsis, meningitis,
and multiple organ failure can occur as a result of the overwhelming bacteremia, almost always
ending in

Lab Report : Streaking Tryptic Soy Agar Plate ( SY )
For this particular assignment, I was given a slant with an unknown bacteria by my lab instructor.
There were several procedures performed to identify the unknown bacteria. The first procedure was
streaking tryptic soy agar plate (TSY). The purpose of streaking is to identify the bacteria in a
sample presenting a pure culture of colony morphologies. After several hours of incubating the
streaked plate, visual isolated colonies were present. The steps to streaking are as follows; Flaming
an inoculation loop with a Bunsen burner until red hot, then allow to cool before taking the
unknown bacterial sample. Streaking four quadrants onto the TSY medium plate by dragging the
loop gently through first quadrant then sterilizing the loop by flaming it again. This procedure was
continued into the third and fourth quadrant. The second procedure performed was the bacteria
smear. The motive of the smear is to have the bacteria ready for a stain after it has been heat fixed
on a slide. These steps conclude by first labeling the slide with the my initials, flaming the
inoculated loop, then allowing the loop to cool before spreading the unknown bacteria on slide after
instilling a drop of distilled water. This process took about 10 minutes for the wet surface to dry
before heat fixing. Heat fixing is when a bacteria smear is smeared on a slide and dried at room
temperature before passing a slide through a hot flame of a Bunsen burner. Soon after the slide had
been heat fixed and

Imagine walking around the street feeling perfectly normal when suddenly, you begin to feel
nauseous and start vomiting heavily. A trip to the ER determines that you have been infected with
anthrax and only have a few days left to live. What would you do? Anthrax is a zoonotic disease
which comes in three forms, is an effective tool used in biological warfare and is difficult to
clinically diagnose. It is caused by Bacillus anthracis, a gram–positive, rod–shaped bacterium.
Infection of B. anthracis, is a virulent disease and has caused fatalities all around the world. In 1979,
the deadliest anthrax outbreak killed about 64 people in a Russian town named Sverdlovsk
(Reynolds, 2001). People were dying left and right and the cause of the disease was unknown. It
was eventually discovered that the Soviet Union had violated the 1972 Biological Warfare
Convention by producing anthrax spores.
There are certain characteristics which are unique to B. anthracis, therefore making it an ideal
weapon in biological warfare. B. anthracis forms spores which are very resistant to heat,
desiccation, UV radiation, and even ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When a person inhales B. anthracis spores, they can manifest in the mediastinal lymph nodes if they
are not taken care of by the body's macrophages. Acquiring anthrax through inhalation usually takes
a week for symptoms to develop, but germination can take as long as two months thereby delaying
the symptoms. The first stage has been associated with various signs; they include shortness of
breath, fever, chills, headache, abdominal pain, vomiting, chest pain and weakness. The second
stage includes more lethal effects such as lymphadenopathy, widening of the mediastinum, cyanosis,
cardiogenic shock, sweating profusely, hypotension, and hemorrhagic meningitis. These medical
conditions are enough to induce death in an affected person within a matter of

Introduction
Acute disease anthrax is caused by the bacterium bacillus anthracis. In most cases this disease can
be extremely lethal and for the most part it affects only animals the most common way of
contraction is through contact or consumption of meat that has been infected by this contagious
disease. There are vaccines that can protect against anthrax available. And in many cases the disease
can respond to antibiotic treatment with success. Similar to other members of the genus bacillus b
anthracis it is known to form dormant endospores that have the ability to survive in conditions that
may be harsh for long periods of time. When an endospore is inhaled or ingested or comes into
contact with apiece of skin on the given subject the spore ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
One is in which case they take a sample of the infected tissue to be Gram stain and I evaluated under
a microscope. And in some cases when it comes to finding bacillus anthracis in blood polymyxin–
lysozyme–EDTA–Thalous acetate can be used to isolate the strand of the bacteria. The use of
vaccines is extremely important for life stock in humans that live within the area we are chances of
exposure or higher. There are two types of vaccines a cellular, which is administered in the United
States and live spore, which is administered in Russia. In 2008 the official approval of anthrax
vaccine was approved in the United States in a five dose series. If a person has died from Anthrax
the CDC should be alerted immediately to take every precaution to seal off the body. Every possible
contingency must be weighed to prevent the exposure of the spores to other humans. And/or
livestock within the area. A blood sample should also be taken to confirm the cause of death at a
certified facility. When handling the body it is important to use improbable clothing that protects the
body from skin exposure after that equipment should be disposed of along with the body. After
proper authorities have been alerted the body along with anyone who handled the body should be
quarantined did for possible exposure. Anthrax is not spread from person to person but spores on the
skin or on the clothing can cause exposure.

The Stolen Bacillus
Juxstapositions of "The Stolen Bacillus" and "The Adventure of the Bruce–Partington Plans"
The Scientific Method is a research tool used to analyze the realities of life by exploring new
phenomena, aquiring knowledge about the world around us and then, developing that data into
questions that will open up to further investigation. Moreover, this method made up of theories/data
that lead to the formation of a hypothesis. The hypothesis is the most important part of the
experiment because it constitutes inductive and deductive reasoning, but more importantly it is
falsifiable and realistic. This leads to the experimental portion of the scientific method where the
researcher will test his/her predictions and draw a conclusion based on the given ... Show more
Conversely, the visitor ousts the scientist's ability to scrutinize him and this conflict is what drives
the plot of the story. To begin, the bacteriologist inductively analyzes the visitors' reaction to the
cholera by using words like "the pale–faced man, with a limp white hand and disengaged eye" (page
1) Proceeding, the visitor quotes "...those mere autonomies might multiply and devastate a city!
Wonderful!" (page. 1) This deductively concludes for the bacteriologists that this strange man had
gruesome thoughts and poor intentions, leading to the scientists' beginning hypothesis... "Once he
brought the bottled cholera he saw the the gleam of satisfaction coming from the visitor." (pg.1) The
reason I believe this to be the hypothesis is because it is falsifiable; the reaction of a person seeing
live cholera, a ferocious germ such as that can lead to many reactions. For example, the visitor could
possibly want to experiment with the cholera more, finding an interest in the science rather than the
destruction of it. Or perhaps, throwing up at the very grasp of the slim glass filled with the deadly
disease. This is what I believe leads to the bacteriologists' experiment, which included details of the
cause and effect relationship between what would happen if cholera leaked into the

Bacillus, Mycoplasma, and Escherichia Essay
Bacillus, Mycoplasma, and Escherichia
In a clinical setting signs and symptoms can lead a care taker down a treatment path, but if a
bacterial infection is suspected, a definitive answer from the "lab" is needed before prescribing
medications. In this instance a yellow sputum was produced by the patient, which will be taken to
the lab an analyzed under a microscope. There are three suspect bacteria, which are Bacillus,
Mycoplasma, and Escherichia. A discussion of staining procedures, as well as anatomical
differences will be discussed for each specimen.
Bacillus are Prokaryotic cells, that are rod shaped bacteria and can from long chains. Bacillus are
also spore forming. When gram staining a Bacillus sample, they are found to be ... Show more
When it is washed off both gram negative and positive samples will appear purple.
Next the slide is washed with a decolorizing agent, which removed color from gram negative cells.
Finally, the slide is washed again and stained with a counterstain, such as safranin. The counterstain
will dye the gram negative cell and will not effect the gram positive cell.
It is known that Mycoplasma pneumonia causes pneumonia. Escherichia coli causes diseases such
as urinary tract infections and gastro–intestinal problems from diarrhea to dysentery–like conditions
(Madigan). Finally, Bacillus is known for Bacillus cereus, commonly known as food poisoning. To
help with the process of elimination a very general comparison of each bacteria may be found
below:
|Bacteria Name |Escherichia |Bacillus |Mycoplasma |
|Shape |Rod like |Rod like, forms chains |Small and variable shape |
|Gram Stain |Negative |Positive |Positive |
After gram staining the sample, Escherichia could be ruled out as it is gram negative. The next step
would be to explore the shape and cell structure of the two remaining bacteria types. Bacillus
shaped like a rod and divides to form a chain. It also has

Heat Resistance of Endospores of Bacillus Pumilus
Heat resistance of endospores of Bacillus pumilus
Abstract
Spore suspension of Bacillus pumilus was inoculated into universal bottles containing sterile
distilled water in water baths at temperatures of 85°C, 90°C and 95°C. At specific time intervals, a
sample was removed and spread on nutrient agar plates. The number of colonies formed was used to
determine the D–value and z–value. The D–value for 85°C is 64.1 minutes, 25.7 minutes for 90°C
and 8.2 minutes for 95°C while the z–value is 11.2°C.
Introduction
Bacterial endospores are very resistant to hostile chemical and physical environments, thus allowing
bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods. A few bacterial genera, such as Bacillus and
Clostridium are capable of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Appendix
Temperature/ °C | Time/ minutes | Colony count 1 | Colony count 2 | Mean colony count |
LOG(mean) | D–value/ minutes | 85 | 0 | 165 | 182 | 173.5 | 2.239 | –1–0.0156=64.103 | | 15 | 114 | 87
| 100.5 | 2.002 | | | 30 | 1 | 0 | 0.5 | –0.301 | | | 45 | 25 | 29 | 27 | 1.431 | | | 60 | 20 | 22 | 21 | 1.322 | | | 75
| 13 | 11 | 12 | 1.079 | | | 90 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 0.699 | | | 105 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 0.602 | | | 120 | 1 | 4 | 2.5 | 0.398 | | 90 |
0 | 165 | 182 | 173.5 | 1.881 | –1–0.0389=25.707 | | 10 | 82 | 70 | 76 | 1.491 | | | 20 | 40 | 22 | 31 | 0.978
| | | 30 | 9 | 10 | 9.5 | 0.699 | | | 40 | 7 | 3 | 5 | 0.176 | | | 50 | 2 | 1 | 1.5 | 0.000 | | | 60 | 2 | 0 | 1 | – | | | 70 |
0 | 0 | 0 | – | | | 80 | 0 | 0 | 0 | – | | 95 | 0 | 165 | 182 | 173.5 | 2.239 | –1–0.1223=8.177 | | 5 | 48 | 39 |
43.5 | 1.638 | | | 10 | 22 | 13 | 17.5 | 1.243 | | | 15 | 6 | 2 | 4 | 0.602 | | | 20 | 1 | 0 | 0.5 | –0.301 | | | 25 | 0 |
0 | 0 | – | | | 30 | 0 | 0 | 0 | – | | | 40 | 0 | 0 | 0 | – | | | 60 | 0 | 0 | 0 | – | | Table 1
z–value = –1–0.0894 =

Anthrax is a virulent infectious disease caused by the bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax is a
zoonotic disease and it is contracted via direct contact from infected animals or contaminated animal
products. The disease spreads through persons who have come into direct contact with the Anthrax
spores. In 2001 Anthrax made global news headlines when it was used as a biological weapon in the
United States following the September 2011 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and
Pentagon (1, 5). Historical reference tells us that Anthrax could have around as far back as biblical
times, the description of the Egyptian plagues is consistent with the symptoms of the disease. First
the livestock becomes ill and it was followed by humans developing boils and blisters which are
symptoms of cutaneous Anthrax. There have been many recorded since the Egyptian plagues but it
wasn't until the "Black Bane" plague broke out in Europe in the 1600s and killed approximately
60,000 cattle and caused a severe economic downturn that the scientific community recognized the
need to study this disease (6).
"Anthrax is intertwined with the origins of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In cutaneous anthrax infections, the most common type, small blisters appear on the skin, swelling
around the blister is typical and necrosis sets in. Inhalation anthrax infection, this method was used
in the 2011 terrorist attacks, most fatal method because it causes sudden chest edema that leads to
cardiovascular shock. Gastrointestinal anthrax infection, is rare, once the spores are ingested they
can causes bloody vomiting and diarrhea and can lead to death. Injection Anthrax infection is a new
method of infection caused by heroin addicts sharing needles. The symptoms are similar to
cutaneous anthrax, it spreads faster and can be difficult to diagnose and treat (1,

Bacterial Strains : A Study And Their Sources
Engineering Section
Bacterial Strains:
Bacterial strains used in this study and their sources are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Bacterial strains code, references and sources.
Source Strain code No. of strains Bacterial sp.
Microbial Genetics Dept., NRC BTN7B 1 Anoxybacillus flavithermus
Microbial Genetics Dept., NRC N3 1 Bacillus alvei
Elhamshary et al. (2008) Bc6 3 Bacillus cereus
Bacillus Genetic Stock Center 6A15
Soliman et al. (2003) I6
Microbial Genetics Dept., NRC 5A3 2 Bacillus licheniformis
Microbial Genetics Dept., NRC N5
Microbial Genetics Dept., NRC I1 1 Bacillus pumilus
Bacillus Genetic Stock Center 9A5 1 Geobacillus stearothermophilus
Microbial Genetics Dept., NRC BTN7a 4 Bacillus subtilis
Faculty of Science, Ain Shams B.S Ain Shams
Microbial Genetics Dept., NRC DB100
Faculty of Science, Al–Azhar Univ. B.S Alazhar
Dr. Priest, F.G., Heriot Univ., England BTI. A 3
Bacillus thuringiensis
Dr. Priest, F.G., Heriot Univ., England BTI. B
Microbial Genetics Dept., NRC BT.K
Microbiological Resources Center (Cairo MIRCEN) Migula 1895Al 1 Pseudomonas fluorescens
Plasmids: pJET/blunt, 2974bp, Ampr (Thermo scientific, USA), Fig. 1 pGEM–Teasy, 3016bp, Ampr
(Promega Co. Madison, USA), Fig. 2
Medium and growth conditions:
Lauria–Bartani (LB) medium Davis et al., (1980). It was used for bacterial growth. It consists of
(gm/l): Trypton; 10.0 gm, Yeast extract; 5.0 gm and NaCl; 5.0 gm. For solid medium, Agar Agar;
20.0 gm was added. Growth

Correlation Between A Cell And Its Background
Introduction:
When viewing live specimens with the microscope it can be very difficult to see. What makes slides
hard to examine is the contrast between a cell and its background, which are both primarily water. In
order to provide information and characteristics about the chemistry of a specimen a method called,
staining is used to increase its differences. Stains/dyes are a salt that colors the ion it penetrates.
There are two types of colors retrieved when staining; in a basic stain the color appears in the
positively charged ion, while in an acidic stain the color is in the negatively charged ion. Examples
of basic dyes include: methylene blue, crystal violet, and safranin. Generally, if a staining procedure
only uses one ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The three bacterial specimens used were: Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus
aureus.
Materials:
– Microscope slides – Kem Wipes
– Broth of Escherichia coli – Broth of Staphylococcus aureus
– Broth of Bacillus subtilis – Inoculating loop
– Bunsen Burner – Rope connector for Bunsen Burner
– Test tube rack – Wax pencil
– Stain (methylene blue) – Compound Microscope
– Clothes pin
Procedure:
1. First and most importantly, hands and work area were sanitized with antiseptic and paper towel.
2. Collected all the materials needed, stated above, and placed them in the work area.
3. Cleaned a microscope slide with a Kem Wipe to avoid bacteria lingering in the air or fingerprints
being seen on it, and continued by adding one or two drops o f distilled water on to the slide.
4. On the opposite side of the slide drew a circle, with the wax pencil, for indication on where the
bacteria were being placed.
5. Assembled Bunsen burner and turned it on so that the flame observed on the inner portion was
light blue and outer portion was dark blue.
6. Once the desired flame was seen, sterilized the loop by placing it on a 45̊ angle so that the entire
piece of metal was sterilized. Waited until the loop turned a red/orange color, then removed it and
allowed the loop to cool off.
7. Made sure to keep the loop, slide, and specimens a couple inches near the flame in order to keep
them sterile.
8. Removed the broth of Bacillus subtilis from

Anthrax– a notifiable bacterial disease of sheep and cattle, typically affecting the skin and lungs. It
can be transmitted to humans, causing severe skin ulceration or a form of pneumonia. The Bacteria
is called Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax was recorded as the 5th plague in the Book of Genisis in 1491
B.C.. After the Egyptians discovered the disease by killing infected cattle, outbreaks were appearing
in places where Romans, Hindus and Greeks lived. The 1st recorded cases of anthrax in the 1800's
were from European people working with dead animal bones and wool. The workers would contract
it by the 2 types of disease, Inhalation Anthrax and Cutaneous Anthrax. Years later, Americans
began to see infections in people who handled materials with

The bacteria I got assigned is Bacillus Anthracis. It's the bacteria that causes Anthrax. They used
Bacillus Anthracis to make the Anthrax Vaccine. There are three different strains of Anthrax they are
Cutaneous,Inhalation,and Gastrointestinal. They also used Bacillus Anthracis to prove diseases are
caused by bacteria.The spores are found in soil,dead animals,and fences. They can remain dominant
for many years. Anthrax is found in farming areas of Central America,South America,and Central
Asia. You can get Cutaneous Anthrax by bumping up against something and getting Bacillus
Anthracis in a cut. You get Inhalation Anthrax by breathing in Air that has spores of Anthrax in it.
You get Gastrointestinal Anthrax by eating raw or undercooked food

Anthrax is an infection caused by the bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax can occur in three
different forms; skin, inhalation and intestinal. It is spread by contact with the bacteria spores, which
are from infectious animal products. Usually contact occurs through breathing, eating or cut and
does not spread between people.
Cutaneous Anthrax
Cutaneous anthrax occurs when anthrax is absorbed through the skin. It enters the cut and symptoms
will show between two and five days after infection. During this time, anthrax will develop like a
boil–like lesion that will have a necrotic center. The boil is usually painless or itchy. Cutaneous
anthrax occurs when humans handle infected animals and animal bi–products. There is an anthrax
vaccination ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The symptoms of GI anthrax are vomiting of blood, diarrhea, and loss of appetite and inflammation
of the intestinal tract. Additionally, lesions can be found in the mouth, intestinal and throat. Once the
anthrax bacteria enter the body through the GI tract, it will spread through the bloodstream and
continue to make toxins.
Inhalation Anthrax
Inhalation anthrax occurs when people breathe in the spores of the bacteria. It is usually presented
as cold–like symptoms and then pneumonia very quickly. It is very difficult to distinguish
pulmonary anthrax from other respiratory illness, as the symptoms are very common.
Use in a military setting
A biological attack using anthrax spores would be delivered by aerosols causing pulmonary anthrax.
As stated above, the incubation period is from 2–5 days and the shown symptoms would be very
similar to a cold. The victim would demonstrate a non–productive cough and mild chest discomfort.
Initially, the symptoms would be mild but after several days they would escalate dramatically. These
symptoms would include an edema of the chest wall, pleural effusions and cyanosis. An edema of
the chest wall is dangerous because the swelling can burst the pleural effusions and can cause
secondary drowning. Cyanosis is when blood without oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin) gathers in the
extremities and blood with oxygen focuses on supporting the major organs. Although the symptoms
of pulmonary anthrax

Techniques Used For All Procedures During The Unknowns...
On the first day of the unknowns exercise, tube letter "B" was chosen and was streaked for isolation
using the quadrant streak technique on two Trypticase Soy Agar (TSA) plates. One of the plates was
incubated aerobically and the other was incubated anaerobically, both at 37° C for twenty–four
hours. Aseptic technique was used for all procedures during the unknowns exercise. All incubations
during this experiment were set at 37 °C.
On the second day of the unknowns experiment, the TSA plates were observed and their results
were recorded. The aerobic TSA plate had a medium amount of growth and the colonies were an
off–white color, had irregular shape, undulate margins, and umbonate elevation. The anaerobic TSA
plate had less growth, but there was still growth present; the colonies on this plate were transparent,
had irregular shape, undulate margins, and raised elevation. The largest colony from each plate was
sub–cultured and prepared to be smeared onto a slide for viewing under the microscope. Once the
organism had dried, the slide was heat fixed and gram stained. The colony obtained from the aerobic
TSA plate showed gram positive bacillus and gram negative bacillus. The colony that was acquired
from the anaerobic TSA plate only had the gram negative bacillus. This showed that the gram
positive organism was an obligate aerobe and that the gram negative organism was a facultative
anaerobe. After the results of the gram stain, the gram negative organism was sub–cultured

Bacillus Thuringiensis Bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis is a spore forming bacterium that produces crystals protein which are toxic to
many species of insects. Therefore it is used a natural pesticide. It is naturally occurring throughout
the world and its usage is very common. There are thousands of different Bt strains. The kurstaki
strain being the most common kills only leaf– and needle–feeding caterpillars. In the last ten years,
Bt strains have been mostly used to control the abundance of flies, mosquitoes, black flies, amongst
others. When it comes to Bt strains, the target is very specific. The strains for mosquitoes will only
target them and not affect other insects. Even though Bt is used in aerial spraying programs and
transgenic crops its main usage in organic farming. In 1901 while performing research on Sudden
Collapse Disease on silk worms, Japanese biologist Shigetane Ishiwatari discovered Bacillus
thuringiensis or Bt originally called Bacillus sotto. It was then rediscovered in 1911 by Ernst
Berliner who was researching the cause of death of the moths in Thuringia, Germany, where the
name thuringiensis comes from. Berliner's research overruled Ishiwatari's research and Bacillus
thuringiensis became the bacteria's name. It was not until 1920 where Bt was reportedly used by
farmers who began to spray it in their fields. Later on in 1938, France brought it into the market as a
flour moth killer called "Sporine." Bt products started off struggling because a vast amount of
insects were immune

Anthrax: A Bioterrorist Weapon
Anthrax is not your common disease. It does not cause a simple cough or a small upset stomach. It
doesn't pass in the air from human to human. It is a tedious almost undetectable disease that has
plagued the lives of many. Anthrax has been a major factor in human history, although the disease
doesn't always hit the race first. Anthrax is mainly caused by herbivore's that graze in infected land.
The plagues that were written in Exodus may have been anthrax in domesticated animals followed
by the disease spreading to humans. The disease that was described in Virgil's Georgics was more
than likely anthrax in domesticated and wild animals. During the 16th to the 18th centuries in
Europe, anthrax was an extremely economically important disease that affected agriculture. So in
short anthrax has been around for quite some time, but even today it imposes a threat to the human
race because of it's ability to be one of the most dangerous bioterrorist weapons used. Anthrax
originates from the bacteria Bacillus Anthracis. The bacteria is a spore–forming rod and is gram–
positive. This spore is incredibly resilient and can be life threatening and often times fatal if
untreated. Bacillus Anthracis was the first bacterium found to conclude that bacteria is the leading
cause in diseases. In 1877 Robert Koch produced a number of anthrax spores and injected them into
a host. He quickly found out that by injecting the spores they were activated and quickly caused a
disease to take over the

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