Running head ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE AVIATION INDUSTRY .docx

Running head: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE
AVIATION INDUSTRY 1
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE AVIATION INDUSTRY
38
Towards an Environmentally Sustainable Aviation:
Managing the Environmental Impact of the Aviation Industry

Abstract
Environmental degradation caused by mankind are beginning to
take a huge toll on the planet. The constant need for expansion
in the aviation industry is depleting Earth’s natural resources
and will be insufficient to satisfy mankind’s never-ending needs
as time passes. Man’s needs have resulted in many detrimental
impacts to the environment. Despite the aviation industry’s
efforts in creating an environmentally friendly industry, it is
still a major contributor to Earth’s carbon emissions. In 2017
alone, the aviation industry as a whole, has generated an
estimated 859 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) (IATA,
2018). Increased Greenhouse Gases (GHG) and climate change
have prompted a need for action from relevant authorities and
organizations to come up with sustainable solutions to solve this
ecological problem. This paper aims to examine areas of
pollution within the aviation industry as well as come up with
solutions to reduce the environmental impacts using sustainable
methods. Sustainable methods include adopting newer clean-
and-green technologies, better management, enhanced safety
and improved legislation. Technological advancements play a
very important role in creating a sustainable aviation. Hence
this paper aims to explore new clean-and-green technologies
such as alternative and sustainable fuels, biomimetic
engineering and generative design technology can help to
mitigate or possibly even eliminate, the industry’s negative
impact on the environment. Furthermore, this paper will discuss
about the legislative powers of regulatory bodies on order to
determine commercial airlines liabilities when conforming to
regulation being imposed by organizations such as ICAO and
FAA. Also, this study will investigate on the potentials of
alternative technologies such as machine learning and the
obsolescence of manned flight.
Keywords: Sustainable, aviation, environmental impact,

pollution
Towards an Environmentally Sustainable Aviation:
Managing the Environmental Impact of the Aviation Industry
The aviation industry has come a long way since the Wright
brother’s first manned flight in 1903. Today, at peak traffic,
there is more than 16,000 flights in the air at any given moment
(Morris, 2017). According to the World Bank (2018), in 2010,
the aviation industry has transported an estimation of 2.6 billion
passengers. In 2017, the number of passengers has risen to over
3.9 billion. This number is projected to rise to 16 billion
passengers by 2050 (World Wild Life, 2016). Hence, without
action, emissions from increased air travel will triple by 2050
(Word Wild Life, 2016). Thus, to protect Earth for future
generations to come, world leaders, organizations and the public
need to understand the aviation effects on the environment as
well as come up with sustainable methods to reduce the overall
negative environmental impacts of this industry.
The exponential growth of the aviation sector comes with a
given price: the increased extraction of Earth’s natural
resources. According to a data analysis conducted by the
International Aviation Transportation Association (IATA), the
aviation industry accounts for 2 percent of man-made carbon
emissions, producing 859 million tons of CO2 in 2017 globally
(IATA, 2018). 2 percent may seem like a small number to
casual observers, however, the aviation industry is
predominantly reliant on Earth’s finite resources and because of
foreseen continuous growth in the future, there is a need for all
stakeholders, organizations and airlines to focus on creating
sustainable energy sources and solutions in the medium term.
Natural resources such as minerals, oils and gases are being
extracted at an alarming rate just to incessantly provide
adequate infrastructure or fuel for the growing industry such as
the construction of newer airports, aerodromes and
technologically advanced aircraft.
The aviation industry being made aware of the gravity of the
situation, recognizes the need to address the global challenge of

climate change and therefore has come up with a four-pillar
strategy in 2009 to address the climate impacts and to meet the
carbon targets (IATA, 2018). The four-pillar strategy includes
coming up with newer technology, improvements to aircraft
operations, improvements to infrastructure and lastly, to create
a single Global Market Based Measure (GWBM) (IATA, 2018).
To address the negative environmental impacts brought about by
the aviation industry, in first pillar of aviation climate action:
“New technology” was suggested as a means to target aircraft
engineering and manufacturing sectors. Even though technology
has been constantly improving and developing rapidly
throughout the years, development of aircraft designs has been
restricted by economic and time related issues (Fielding, 2017).
Figure 1. Aircraft Designs throughout the years. Retrieved from
https://whyfiles.org/2014/on-the-wing-birds-skeeters-jet-planes-
same-design-rule-applies/index.html
Figure 1 above displays many aircraft designs from the early
1900s to present day. Ostensibly, the core airframe design of
the commercial aircrafts has remained relatively the same. Since
there were no major design flaws with the aircraft, engineers do
not see the value in making major changes to the design of
commercial aircrafts (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, 1999).
Nevertheless, technology is becoming so advanced today such
that technology can effectually supplement the proficiencies of
skilled personnel and provide innovative ways to combat
prevailing issues (McCarthy, 2017). According to McKnight
(2017), “by effectively adopting the ability of the
aforementioned technologies and infusing them into the process
of aircraft engineering design, engineers and scientists are able
to study details in mechanical and biological designs,
troubleshoot design problems which were difficult to identify at
earlier stages and run many simulations and come up with
permutations to determine and achieve the most feasible design;
thus circumventing conventional factors limiting the

development of new, efficient, and eco-friendly airframes” (p.
176).
This paper aims to investigate and examine the adoption of
various sustainable methods such as alternative aircraft fuels,
the study of nature through biomimicry and generative design
based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). The author will also
analyze various ecological impacts produced through the
aviation sector and determine how the adoption of
aforementioned technologies can perhaps mitigate or even
eliminate the negative impacts on the environment.
Environmental Concerns
According to “The point of no return for climate action:
effects of climate uncertainty and risk tolerance” (2018), Year
2035 is the deadline set for climate action to have a profound
impact globally by environmental scientists (Aengenheyster,
Feng, van der Ploeg, & Dijkstra, 2018). Aengenheyster et al
(2018), estimates with a 67% probability, if no corrective action
is taken by 2035, global warming will hit a point of no return
and mean global temperatures around the world will increase by
2°C by year 2100 (Aengenheyster et al., 2018). This growing
issue has prompted organizations and world government to take
immediate action so as to mitigate the effects of global
warming. Similarly, over 15,000 scientists have come together
to be a signatory of the report “World Scientists’ Warning to
Humanity: A Second Notice” (2017). The purpose of this report
is to give humanity a second notice about these alarming trends.
It aims to corral immediate collaborative action so as to
mitigate the ecological detrimental activities by stressing upon
the increasing production of carbon emissions. According to
both reports, the present industrial production is beginning to
surpass the threshold of the environment and is triggering
irreversible and substantial harm to the environment.
According to an assessment report on transportation sector
emissions done by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change’s (IPCC), GHG emissions have increased by more than
twice since the 1970s (Sims et al., 2014). This study has shown

that the transportation sector’s emission rates have increased at
a faster rate than any other energy end-use sector, amounting to
28% of total end used energy in 2010 (Sims et al., 2014). If
global aviation were to be counted as a country, it would rank
as the 7th largest emitter of carbon dioxide in 2011 (ICCT,
2014).
Exhaustible Natural Resources
One of the biggest drivers for the excessive extraction of
Earth’s raw materials is that of burgeoning affluence. According
to a report by the International Resource Panel (IRP), raw
materials extraction has increased by over three times in 40
years, from 22 billion tons in 1970 to 70 billion tons in 2010
(Schandl et al., 2016). The constant harvesting of non-
renewable resources does not bode well for the environment and
could cause a shortage of critical resources in the near future as
these resources would gradually deplete and cease to exist
(Schandl et al., 2016).
Understanding this, Government agencies and other
organizations have enacted countermeasures to the
environmental issue. For example, by considering the associated
environment detriments, the Australian government has come up
with an initiative intended for a total shift of the whole country
to renewable energy by 2030 and for 40% of its country’s
transportation to be emission free by 2035 (Australia
Conservation Foundation, 2016). This initiative will not only
improve energy efficiency and reduce the detrimental impacts
on the environment but also help to generate cost-savings of 20
billion a year on fuel costs (Australia Conservation Foundation,
2016).
Carbon Emissions and Climate Change
According to the American Meteorological Society, GHG
emissions have already risen close to four times since the
1960s. The exponential increase of CO2 due to industrial
demands has already hit an all-time high and is beginning to
take a toll on the environment. Figure 2 below shows a sharp
increase in CO2 emissions in 2016 hitting an average of 402.9

parts per million (ppm).
Figure 2. Carbon Emission Trends. Retrieved from
https://www.climate.gov/sites/default/files/paleo_CO2_2016_62
0.gif.
One of the major drivers of carbon emissions is the combustion
of fossil fuels. When being burnt for energy, fossil fuels
releases stored carbon molecules from fossil fuels back into the
atmosphere as CO2. CO2, being a greenhouse gas, absorbs heat
and releases it gradually over time (Lindsey, 2017). It helps to
keep the Earth’s annual average temperature close to 15°C,
without it, Earth’s temperature would be below freezing point
(Lindsey, 2017). However, the exponential increase in CO2
emissions has tipped Earth’s thermal balance, trapping more
heat and raising Earth’s temperature higher before any recovery
could take place.
In relation to aerodynamics, the increase in temperatures would
adversely affect the aviation industry. Higher temperatures
cause air to become less dense thus decreasing the performance
of aircraft to climb. Lesser air density would result in lesser
molecules of air around the wings to generate lift and reduced
mass of air entering the engine cylinders for combustion. This
ultimately increases fuel consumption, which further causes
increased CO2 to be released into the atmosphere. Hence, there
is a greater need for the aviation industry to focus and address
the environmental issues at hand to break this vicious cycle.
Noise Pollution
Aircraft noise is a significant problem which needs to be
addressed indefinitely. Noise pollution primarily occurs during
the landing or take off phase where the aircraft is closest to the
ground. In a study conducted by the National Institutes of
Health (2017), it has been noted that noise pollution causes
annoyance in a community by disrupting sleep and rest. Basner
et al (2017), reports this has been linked to an increase risk of
cardiovascular disease when individuals are exposed to
relevance noise levels over a long period of time. Noise

pollution caused by the aviation sector is currently regulated by
authorities with compliance to IATA, ICAO or local authorities.
One such example would be the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), a governing body which regulates civil
aviation in the Unites States (U.S.) to promote safety.
FAA has long recognized the effects of aircraft noise
pollution and has been developing a variety of programs in a bid
to understand how noise pollution would affect the environment
and public health. FAA has come up with a multitude of
programs and solutions to reduce those impacts and lastly, to
educate its public on the problems and their ongoing efforts to
reduce noise pollution (FAA, 2018). For one, FAA has begun an
initiative to phase out older, noisier civil aircrafts. The agency
has come up with a standard that requires the aircraft to meet or
fall within the designated noise levels. There are four stages in
this standard with stage one being the loudest and stage four
being the quietest. Different states have different regulations in
terms of aircraft noise levels. Some states require the noise
level to be at Stage one, while some allow some laxity for Stage
Two. Aircraft that do not meet these requirements are not
allowed to fly within the U.S. Additionally, the FAA also has
active programs such as The Continuous Lower Energy
Emission, and Noise (CLEEN) program in a bid to tackle noise
pollutions.
Even though federal and international agencies can step in
to reduce noise impacts, it is usually the local authorities who
control the land use decisions near airports (Waitz, Townsend,
Gershenfeld, Greitzer & Kerrebrock, 2004). There are still many
instances where federal land use guidance designed to mitigate
these impacts are not followed by local authorities and have
instead worsened the problem (Waitz et al., 2004). Even though
some communities have taken a proactive approach in
addressing the noise pollution near airports, there still exists a
lack of regulation and communication between federal agencies
and local authorities.
Despite this, there are still potential for technological and

operational improvements when it comes to reducing nose
pollution. This was evident in the plans made by the European
Union (EU). In a report drafted by the Advisory Council for
Aviation Research and Innovation in Europe (ACARE), plans
were made to reduce perceived noise from aircraft to one half of
the current average levels by year 2020 (ACARE, 2001).
Additionally, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) has also planned to develop a technology which could
reduce up to 50% in effective noise level (Waitz et al., 2004).
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has
also established a committee in 1983 to assist the council and
formulate new policies and adopt a new standards and
recommended practices to aircraft noise and emissions (ICAO,
n.d.). It is known as the Committee on Aviation Environmental
Protection (CAEP). ICAO’s CAEP has established a new global
noise reduction standard, which already has rallied a number of
supporters from various countries. The standard consists of
noise reduction technology, community engagement for aviation
environmental management, and continuing development
standard for supersonic aircraft (ICAO, 2018).
Besides coming up with new policies, standards and
technological innovations, the government can also reduce noise
pollution by attacking the root cause of the problem. One such
method to combat noise pollution is the relocation of airports
and aerodromes to isolated areas with lesser people.
Air Pollution
Even though noise is the main ecological constraint on both
aerodrome operations and expansion, many airports still put air
quality on equivalent foothold with noise pollution (Waitz et
al., 2004). Aviation air pollution is typically caused by the
combustion of fossil fuels in aircraft engines and aerodrome
service equipment. When fossil fuels are combusted, harmful
emissions such as nitrogen oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO),
unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and particulate matter (PM) are
released into the environment (Waitz et al., 2004). These
harmful emissions can result in local air quality degradation,

which may deteriorate human health and accelerate Earth’s
greenhouse effect. Cokorilo (2016) reports that even though air
pollutants from transport are typically declining over the past
decade, more than 80% of cities are still exposed to air
pollutants produced by the transport sector.
One effective method to reduce air pollution is by
accurately obtaining the emission output from aircraft. This can
be obtained by calculating the amount of fuel it consumed
during flight. However, calculating emissions may not be as
simple as it is, factors such as weather conditions, engine
model, engine size, distance, takeoff weight and flight altitude
all need to be considered before one can produce accurate
figures for emission output (Jardine, 2005). After obtaining
emission figures, certain programs such as the Aircraft
Particular Emission eXperiment (APEX) will be used to
measure the emissions of the aircraft through intrinsic
calculating technology in the system (NASA, 2006). World
leaders and decision makers can therefore introduce safety
measures according to the emission outputs to mitigate air
pollution.
As an example, before the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) was established, the United States was plagued
with very severe air pollution. Twenty people were killed, and
thousands were sick after a cloud of air pollution was formed
over a local factory in 1948 (Ross, Chmiel & Ferkol, 2012).
This tragedy was one of the few incidents which prompted
authorities to establish the EPA so as to minimize
environmental impact in the country. The first piece of effective
air quality regulation was passed in the 1970 under the Clean
Air Act (CAA). Under the CAA, the EPA has the right to
control emission of pollutants which compromises health of the
public and welfare. Moreover, EPA (2011), reports that in 2010
there was a significant drop in fine particle pollution and ozone
pollution accomplished by the CAA. This act has helped to
avoid an additional 160,000 premature deaths, millions of
potential cases of respiratory problems, 130,000 potential cases

of heart attacks, and 86,000 potential hospital admissions (EPA,
2011).
Decreased Mean Surface Albedo
Surface albedo is the measure of reflectivity of the Earth’s
surface which determines its light reflection characteristics. The
darker the surface albedo of the object, more light is absorbed,
thus leading to the object trapping more thermal energy
(Grenfell & Maykut, 1977). This is the reason why people tend
to feel hotter when wearing darker colored clothes. Hence,
white ice and permafrost play a very important role in Earth’s
thermal regulation (Grenfell & Maykut, 1977).
As white ice and permafrost start to melt due to global
warming, it decreases the surface area of white surfaces leading
to less energy being reflected back into space. This phenomenon
causes heat radiated from the sun to be absorbed, thus warming
up the Earth even more (Grenfell & Maykut, 1977).
Consequently, permafrost acts as Earth’s natural repository
for large amount of carbon and nutrients from organic matter
(Gasser et al., 2018). Gasser et al., (2018) reports that as more
and more permafrost is melted through Earth’s higher mean
temperatures, it will release an inordinate amount of CO2 and
GHG into the atmosphere thus warming up the Earth even
further.
The Aviation Industry’s Role
The aviation sector, being one of the fastest growing sources of
emissions is the most climate intensive form of transport.
Greenhouse gas emissions in the aviation industry has risen by
over 75% in a mere 22 years from 1990 to 2012 (UNFCC,
2014). The aviation industry is also accountable for roughly 5%
of all man-made global warming (Lee et al., 2009). In spite of
this, the aviation industry has the least governmental
jurisdiction in the transportation sector perhaps due to the need
for international standardization through organizations such as
ICAO (Transport & Environment, 2016).
ICAO
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was

initially created to promote the safe and efficient development
of the aviation industry. However, since it was customary that
international aviation was not included in the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) climate
negotiations, the United Nations (UN) gave ICAO the right to
emissions consistent with the goals of the Paris Agreement
(ATAG, n.d.).
ICAO has no power over its signatories despite serving as
the regulatory body for civil aviation (Abeyratne, 2007). ICAO
has numerous experiences in environmental protection in the
form of international Standards and Recommended Practices
(SARPS) which serves as recommendations and guidelines for
their signatories to follow. Failure to conform to ICAO’s
standards would typically result in a suspension of an airlines
right to operate in a signatory state or the removal of a voting
power of a state (Abeyratne, 2007).
Annex 16 Volume II of the Chicago Convention deals with
aircraft engine emissions. According to Liu (2011), “it contains
SARPS for the control of smoke and gas emissions from aircraft
engaged in international civil aviation” (p. 111). “The annex
also contains SARPS which require certification of aircraft
engines to prevent intentional fuel venting” (Liu, 2011, p.111).
This practice involves the intentional discharge of fuel into the
atmosphere during flight or ground operations (Liu, 2011).
These standards are there to provide a standardized and uniform
aviation practice around the world.
ICAO’s expertise and experience makes it an obvious
choice to be aviation’s regulator in terms of climate change.
However, it is only effective now due to a mutualistic
agreement amongst their signatories. Furthermore, political
complexities may undermine ICAO’s purpose in ensuring safety
through international uniformity. One such example can be
linked to Taiwan’s application to ICAO being rejected since
China sees Taiwan as its own territory and not an independent
state which is eligible to join UN agencies (Jennings, 2016).
Technology, Research & Development

Technological advancements in research and development has
advanced dramatically over the last few years. With concerns
over aircraft greenhouse gas emissions on the rise, it comes as
no surprise for technology to also play a part in improving
aircraft fuel efficiency and reducing aircraft emission outputs.
The FAA and its NextGen Program attempts to understand,
manage and reduce the overall environmental impacts caused by
aviation so as to promote a sustainable aviation growth. One
such area where NextGen has created, is a new interconnected
system which allows National Airspace System (NAS) users to
switch to a new satellite navigation system. The new satellite
system helps FAA to create a more efficient and optimum routes
for use anywhere in the NAS. The system provides precious and
efficient navigation aids which can reduce flight time, fuel use
and aircraft emissions (FAA, 2018).
Alternative Energy Sources
In order to create an eco-friendly industry, solutions need to be
implemented to cut down on aircraft carbon emissions.
Globally, the aviation industry produced 781 million tons of
CO2 in 2015, with domestic aviation accounting for 35% and
international aviation accounting for 65% of the 781 million
tons (ATAG, 2015). Furthermore, the aviation industry in EU is
expected to grow by over 80% by 2030, this will further drive
global emission levels to an all-time high if nothing is done.
Even though, aircraft fuel efficiency has improved by over two
times since 1990, the increase in aviation activity still poses a
substantial threat to the environment (ATAG, 2015). In order to
cut down on carbon emissions in the environment, two methods
are proposed: the usage of alternative fuel sources and
improvements in engine fuel efficiency.
The production of energy using other sustainable and renewable
sources no longer poses an issue. Hypothetically speaking, there
will be no energy scarcity even if all coal burning power plants
all over the world are replaced by renewable energy resources
(Taylor, 2018). However, there need to be a means of storing
energy cost-efficiently (Taylor, 2018).

Energy density is the measure of energy produced from 1kg of
an energy source. It is represented by the unit
“megajoule/kilogram”. Even the most up-to-date Lithium Ion
(Li-ion) batteries being created at the moment have an energy
density of around 1 MJ/kg (Green Transportation, 2018). On the
other hand, aviation fuel such as kerosene has an energy density
of 42.6 to 42.8 MJ/kg (Bisio & Boots, 1995). Hence, an aircraft
with the intention to make use of electrical energy produced
from alternative sustainable sources would therefore need to
carry over an estimated 40 times the weight of fuel to produce
the same amount of energy (Ng, 2018). With an increase in
weight of the aircrat, more power is needed for the aircraft to
take flight. Thus, in terms of both engineering and economic
perspectives, this is an unfeasible design. There needs to be an
option for the exploration of alternative engineering methods
such as sustainable alternative and low emission fuels,
biomimetic engineering and generative design based on
Artificial Intelligence.
Alternative, Sustainable and Low Emission Fuels
The projected exponential growth of the aviation industry has
led to the development of alternative jet fuels. In 2013,
globally, jet fuel was used at approximately 5.7 million barrels
per day, with 1.4 million barrels used per day by the U.S (EIA,
2013). The aviation industry is expected to increase by
approximately 4.3% per year (ATAG, 2016). This projected
increase in aviation demand could give rise to both fossil fuels
consumption and GHG emissions if sustainable low emission
fuels are not developed.
The benefits of switching to biofuels include creating more jobs
and employment opportunities as well as creating a more
sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to fossil
fuels. The aviation industry is already facing tremendous
pressure and challenges from authorities to improving
environmental sustainability and reducing its carbon footprint
on the environment. Thus, using a sustainable and greener
alternative such as biofuels could relieve some of the pressure

on them.
However, unlike other unsustainable fuels such as diesel
and gasoline, sustainable aviation biofuels are still a
considerably new market and is in its early stages of
development. In the short term, the most promising possibility
is to be able to develop these sustainable biofuels for the
aviation industry. Furthermore, bioderived ambition fuel has
already piqued much interest from various manufacturers in the
aviation industry. Airlines, engine manufacturers to fuel
manufacturers as well as governments and international
organizations such as ICAO are beginning to initiate the
development and production of aviation jet biofuels. According
to the Department of Energy (2017), “experts believe that
biofuels are the key to mitigating the growth constraints of the
aviation industry” (p. iii).
Biofuels are good contenders to reduce environmental
impacts that may arise from the use of fossil fuels. Beginner’s
Guide to Aviation Biofuels (2011), reports that aircraft biofuels
made from oilseed camelina still has an 84% decrease in GHG
emissions when compared to conventional fossil fuels over the
entire lifecycle.
Figure 3. Lifecycle emissions of fossil fuels vs Biofuels.
Retrieved from Beginner’s Guide to Aviation Biofuels, 2011
Figure 3 shows the lifecycle of aircraft running on fossil
fuels versus one that runs on biofuels. As feedstock is used in
the production of biofuels, CO2 from the atmosphere is being
absorbed by these plants for energy. Through the burning of
crop derived fuel, CO2 is released again. This cycle creates a
positive feedback loop where a shorter carbon cycle is created.
However, besides emissions from the burning of biofuels,
additional emissions such as seeding, growing, harvesting,
transporting are still created during the lifecycle (Beginner’s
Guide to Aviation Biofuels, 2011).
Biomimetic Engineering
Biomimetic engineering is the study of science which focuses

on the imitation elements of nature to solve complex human
problems (Miller, 2010). Biomimicry helps to seek sustainable
solutions to human problems by emulating nature’s forms,
processes and strategies (Miller, 2010). Nature has given
scientists many options of materials that are multi-functional
with adaptive functions which scientists desire to imitate. It is
based upon the fact that scientists understand nature has been
constantly evolving and perfecting solutions to universal
problems for four billion years. Hence, biomimetics aims to use
nature as a guide to derive sustainable alternatives to technical
challenges in aviation (Miller, 2010).
Biomimetics, albeit seen as a new and emerging
technology, has always been prevalent in human history.
Leonardo Da Vinci, the founding father of Ichnology, applied
biomimicry to the study of birds in a bid to achieve human
flight (Vierra, 2016). Even though Leonardo Da Vinci was
unsuccessful with his flying machines, his designs were used as
a source of inspiration for the Wright Brothers who eventually
created and flew the first airplane in 1903 (Vierra, 2016).
Figure 5. Biomimicry applications per different areas and their
developmental stage. Retrieved from https://www-sciencedirect-
com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/science/article/pii/S07349750
14001517
The largest area of biomimicry research can be seen from figure
5 where close to 50 percent of all reviewed references is found
in material development. Lurie-Luke (2014), noted that,
“biomimetics material design can be categorized into four
classes: (i) smart materials inspired by nature's ability to react
and change in response to external stimuli; (ii) surface
modifications which include novel surface topographies with
improved functions; (iii) material architectures which feature
novel shapes and structural arrangements and (iv) technologies
which are based on enhancing existing systems using specific
parameters of an adaptation” (p. 1496-1497). Using biomimicry

in material design has given new opportunities for material
development across a range of industries, including optics,
coating materials, medicine, agriculture and textiles (Lurie-
Luke, 2014).
Biomimicry Levels
Biomimicry emulates nature at three different levels: form,
process and system (Miller, 2010). Should engineers and
designers be able to mimic all three levels, humans can begin to
do what all well-adapted organisms learned to do which is to
create conducive conditions to life (Benyus, n.d.).
Natural form. The first level of biomimicry is to mimic nature’s
natural form. Natural form is the most common and simplest
approach to using nature as its model (Miller, 2010). It
emphasizes on the physical physiognomies of natural designs,
for instance, mimicking the hooks of burdock burrs to make
Velcro (Miller, 2010).
Natural process. The second level of biomimicry is the imitating
of natural process or studying how something is made. This
level is analogous with sciences such as chemistry to determine
the processes essential to create materials from nature (Miller,
2010). One such example is the processing of spider silk. The
spider uses common raw materials, without any form of
pollutants, as per nature’s chemistry (Miller, 2010).
Natural ecosystems. The last level of biomimicry, to mimic
natural ecosystems is to investigate how each product fits in to
complete a system. This level attempts to create products and
processes to fit in seamlessly within the larger system so as to
work and restore rather than deplete Earth’s resources. One
example is the Owl’s feathers. The owl feathers are part of an
owl which is part of the forest that is part of a biome and is part
of a sustaining biosphere (Benyus, n,d,). Hence, in the same
way, this owl inspired fabric must be part of a larger economy
which is able to restore rather than deplete Earth’s natural
resources (Benyus, n,d,).
Biomimetics in Airbus Aircraft
For the past 2 years Airbus have been employing the use of

nature as its source of inspiration for their newer aircrafts.
Airbus has created a concept plane of what an Airbus aircraft
would look like in the year 2050. It uses biomimicry as a
guiding principle in their designs which aims to use fewer
resources, lightweight structure, waste-free manufacturing, and
wireless electrical systems, all of which can help in reducing
GHG emissions and fossil fuel use (Rich, 2012).
Sharkskin surface. Certain Airbus models were fitted with small
‘riblet’ patches onto their fuselage and wings to mimic those of
a sharkskin. Oeffner & Lauder (2012), reports that this ribbed
nature of the shark helps to produce an anti-fouling effect which
reduces drag on the aircraft. Airbus engineers have also tested
and demonstrated that the ribbed edges on the aircraft is highly
suitable for long-range aircraft, since its drag-reducing surface
is particularly effective during high-speed cruise flight (Airbus,
2018). This would help to effectively reduce fuel consumptions
and in turn reduce GHG emissions.
Albatross wings. The albatross is a seafaring bird which can fly
very long distances without a single flap of their wings. In order
to fly such long distances, the birds need to extend their wings
away from their body so as to glide in the wind. Similar to
aircraft, these birds rely on both speed and wind to maintain
their flight. Speed is produced by gravity when the birds fall
towards Earth and lift is produced by the differences in air
pressure flowing under and over the wing. Both factors help to
keep soaring birds in flight without expending much of their
energy. Furthermore, airbus engineers have also found out that
the aspect ratio of an albatross wings is significantly greater
than those of the Airbus (Airbus, 2018). These have shown that
having a higher aspect ratio which helps the birds to fly higher
can reduce drag, thus reducing fuel consumption and GHG
emissions.
Noise Abatement: Biomimicry of Owls
The U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO, 2000) has
reported that in 29 out of 50 airports, noise was accounted as
the pollution with the greatest environmental concern. Aircraft

noise remains one of most significant barriers to the expansion
of the aviation industry (Girvin, 2009). Despite having
technological developments made to aircraft engines, noise
reduction policies and strategic placement of aerodromes, noise
pollution still remains a major problem for the aviation industry
(Hsu & Lin, 2005). Besides the aviation sector, Agarwal (2012)
reports, the amount of people who will be affected by aircraft
noise may increase from 24 million in 2000 to 30.5 million by
2025. Hence, there exists an urgency to address noise pollution
issues and problems of GHG emissions using technological
means of design and operational improvements in commercial
aviation.
Owls, being nocturnal hunters possesses the ability to hunt
in effective silence by suppressing the sound of their wings at a
specific sound frequency (Lehigh, 2017). Owls possess three
distinct features in their wings which are assumed to be
responsible for their noiseless flight capability. First, their
feathers on the upper wing surface are extraordinarily complex
with a wide array of hairs and interlocking barbs which form a
thick canopy just above the nominal wing surface (Jaworski &
Peake, 2013). This unique feature creates a buffer layer which
helps to reduce noise. Secondly, the trailing edge of their wing
contains a small flexible and porous fringe. The trailing edge of
the wing is usually where the most noise is generated not only
for the owl but also aircraft (Jaworski & Peake, 2013). With this
flexible and porous fringe, it helps to give a significant
decrease in noise generated. Lastly, a downy material spread
across the top of the wing (Jaworski & Peake, 2013). This
velvety material on the top of the wing creates a compliant but
rough surface and even though it is the least studied of the three
features, Jaworski (2013), believes that it also helps to
eliminate sound at the source through a novel mechanism which
is unlike those of ordinary sound absorbers.
Pertaining to the aviation industry, scientist and engineers
are particularly interested in the comb-like flexible serrations
on the trailing edge of the owl’s wing. Scientists and engineers

believe that this unique feature can help to not only reduce
noise but also improve the aerodynamic performance of the
aircraft (Bachmann & Wagner, 2011). Besides applications in
aircraft design, the biomimicry of owl feather aeroacoustics
properties is also being researched for use in the texturing of
wind turbine blades (Peters, 2016).
Swarm Technology: Biomimicry of Insects
Technology has improved by leaps and bounds since the past 20
years. One such area that has improved exponentially is the
Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) sector in the aviation
industry. In the past, UAS are mostly used by the military to
perform intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions.
Today, UAS are not limited to the use of the military but also in
the commercial and public sector. According to studies done by
Teal team, in the next 10 years the development of civil UAS
will increase four-fold and by 2025, non-military UAS
production will reach $10.9 billion (Geiver, 2016). Geiver
(2016), reports that in year 2016 one million drones are
produced, and by year 2018 the number of drones produced will
increase by two-fold.
Scientists and engineers are beginning to look into the
biomimicry of insects due to the collective and decentralized
intelligence which insects possess. This concept can be used to
apply to groups of UAS under autonomous control. Using
swarm intelligence, these UAS would be able to work in
concert, accomplishing tasks which a single UAS is not able to.
By studying a certain insect called the Aphaenogaster desert
ant, scientists realise that these ants do not have a central
coordinator, they sense their neighbors and objects to have an
implicit coordination across the whole group (Kumar, 2012).
Similar to Aphaenogaster desert ants, the UAS swarming
formation is when UASs monitor the separation between each
other as they fly in formation. The distance between each UAS
is constantly monitored to ensure that they are within acceptable
levels so as not to crash into each other (Kumar, 2012). The
UASs constantly monitor and calculate the control commands at

100 times per second which translates into motor commands at
600 times per second (Kumar, 2012). When swarm intelligence
is applied to UAS robotics systems, these UAS can climb
synchronously and transmit information with each other
inflight. Thus, allowing fixed formation group flights and
complex acrobatic group flights to be possible in the very near
future (Kumar, 2012). Basically, how autonomous flight works
is that an individual UAS would sense the distance between its
neighboring partner and adjust its position accordingly. If any
UAS senses that it is close to an object, it would correct itself
and then maintain the appropriate distance according to the
information shared (Kumar, 2012).
The potential use for swarm technology in commercial aviation
are many. This technology can be introduced into the air traffic
system as a traffic collision avoidance system or be used to
improve airport congestion and traffic sequencing issues
(Valavanis & Vachtsevanos, 2015). This can help to minimize
fuel wastage and reduce GHG emissions.
Technologically-Enabled Design and Operations
The aviation industry is automating its processes rapidly due to
the ongoing technological innovations such as automated
landings of commercial aircrafts. Automation is gaining its
prominence in aviation whereby the safety of operations is of
utmost importance. Statistics have shown that with the
advancement and dependability of material technologies and
machines, accidents caused by human error has increased
dramatically from a mere 20% in the olden days of aviation to a
staggering 80% (Rankin, 2007).
The study of human factors is vital to ensure the safety of
aviation operations. In many circumstances, people usually have
a general error rate ranging from 0.5% to 1.0% (Lee, 2009).
It is virtually impossible to eliminate human error from the field
of operations in spite of the comprehensive training programs
and strict certification requirements. Thus, the gradual
elimination of human influence from the equation altogether is
seen as a viable countermeasure. In light of the recent issues to

pilot shortage, one of the biggest aircraft manufacturers in the
world – Boeing has been intently working on a technology
which enables the aviation industry to progress to single-crew
passenger operations. This new technology circumvents
orthodox European Aviation regulations suggesting that a
commercial aircraft with above 19 seats needs to have at least 2
flight crew members in the cockpit (Batchelor, 2018).
Swift improvements in technology have paved ways for the
realization of exceptionally efficient autonomous operations
along with enabling technologically augmented engineering
design process (McKnight, 2017).
Machine Learning
A subdivision of Artificial Intelligence, machine learning is the
tenet of computer science, in a bid to get computers to learn and
act like the human brain process. Machine learning allows
computers to improve learning at a given pace autonomously by
integrating data and information using real world interactions.
As computational power gains its prominence along with
progress through the accessibility of big data, the derivations of
machine learning has affirmed its importance in fields like
Cyber Security (Dua & Du, 2016) and Earth science (Lary,
2010). Neural networks and vector machines are some types of
machine learning algorithms being used typically.
A pressing problem with the use of machine learning in the
aviation sector, particularly in the aviation security department
is that the machine tends to wrongly classify images and data
after minimal modifications to the system. Szegedy et al. (2013)
did a thorough investigation on this phenomenon after knowing
that their ability to “fool” the network into misclassifying
images by making changes that are undetectable by normal
visuals. Szegedy et al. (2013) tested this hypothesis by using an
advanced neural network.
In a study conducted by Szegedy et at. (2013), AlexNet – a
machine learning technology was presented with adversarial
examples. It was shown that even when it was presented with
complex examples, it remained relatively robust. This means

that it was tougher for another neural network to detect the
disturbance when one set of adversarial images were given,
despite training the system using a spectrum of different
information. The study suggested that a flaw in the system
exists among a spectrum of neural networks as they explore to
make use of identical counter-intuitive characteristics to
generate allowable information (Szegedy et al., 2013). This
same study by Szegedy et al. (2013), also indicated that
authentication problems exists in neural networks accepting
non-text inputs, restricting the network’s capability in security
due to rising trend of environmental based and facial
recognition
Technological advancements from harnessing energy via wind,
sun and hydro are becoming increasingly popular and
economically viable. Hence, machine learning is increasingly
used by industries as a form for clean, cheap and reliable
energy. Negative impacts such as GHG emissions from the
burning of natural gas and fossil fuels has further accelerated
this shift. Machine learning is being used by industries as smart
grid to help monitor and control consumer and node which
ensures two-way flow of electricity and information. Companies
like Google are already using machine learning and AI to reduce
energy use on their data centers. Google using their very own
AI technology, was able to reduce its energy consumption by
close to 40% (Neuromation, 2018). Hence, this proves that the
aviation industry can also use this technology so as to reduce
energy consumption levels in their airports, aerodromes and
aircraft manufacturing companies.
Pertaining to the aviation industry, machine learning can be
used to create forecasts for electricity demand and generation
by predicting and managing the fluctuations in production. The
aviation industry has also already incorporated the use of
machine learning in many of their operations. Many operations
in the airport such as passenger identification, baggage
screening and customer assistance has one in form or another
used machine learning to better improve their services for their

customers (Peters, 2018).
Hence, machine learning could be a merit to aviation design and
operations due to its ability to achieve a greater level of
automation and outdoing human brains in many circumstances.
Some examples of application of machine learning in aviation
would include predictive maintenance, and aerodynamic
simulations – leading to higher levels of efficacy, safety, and
tightened security operations.
Improved Technologies: Obsolescence of Pilots
Flying on an aircraft that is unmanned and fully autonomous is
a very interesting concept considering that most of plane
accidents are caused by pilot error. According to Boeing, pilot
error accounts for 80% of all aviation accidents, while the other
20% is largely due to weather conditions and faulty equipment
(Haq, 2013). With such a high number of accidents being caused
by pilot error, it may thus be safer to have fully autonomous
aircraft to ferry passengers to their destination.
Relating to the aviation industry, the development of an
autonomous aircraft may be considered due to its cost saving
benefits and added value of safety which Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAV) possesses. Furthermore, Airbus (2018),
indicates that using modern computer technology and increasing
levels of autonomy can help to better optimize flight
trajectories. This can bring about numerous social and
environmental benefits such as reduction in fuel use and noise.
In addition, autonomy also allows for easier vehicle sharing and
can substantially take a toll off Earth’s natural resources
(Airbus, 2018).
Even though the implementation of autonomous aircraft may be
a merit to the aviation industry in terms of safety and
sustainability, public perception is still an influential factor,
especially for commercial aviation. People still do not like the
idea of flying in a fully autonomous aircraft with AI at the helm
of the cockpit. Furthermore, there is a lack of policies,
standards and procedures for UAV access into the National
Airspace System (NAS) which the FAA and ICAO need to

address before autonomous aircraft can be made into a reality
(Tam, 2011).
Recently, the FAA together with NASA has also pushed Section
744 of the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018. This act
establishes a research program in support of single piloted cargo
aircraft assisted remote piloting and computer piloting (Carey,
2018).
This act however, received massive backlash from pilots since
their jobs were on the line. Despite pilots’ objections,
technology has already improved to the point where most of the
operation in the cockpit is already highly automated. Thus, it
comes as no surprise where one day pilots will be replaced with
a fully automated cockpit. Furthermore, self-driving
technologies assisted by machine learning is already out in the
market. This is apparent in Tesla’s growing fleet of automated
cars.
Operational Improvements
There is a multitude of improvements in operations of the
aviation industry which are developing or has already been
introduced that can reduce GHG emissions significantly in the
near future. For instance, one of the leading operational
improvements is the reduction of inefficiencies in Air Traffic
Management (ATM) - the introduction of the Next Generation
Air Transportation System (NextGen) and Boeing’s tailored
arrivals system can help to provide a suitable solution to the
current issues at hand (Agarwal, 2012).
NextGen. The Next Generation Air Transportation System is
the modernization of an active networking technology that
updates itself with real-time shared information and adapts
itself to the individual needs of all United States aircraft (FAA,
2018). It has a digital air transportation network which
promotes versatility in its systems by allowing aircrafts to
instantly conform to ever-changing circumstances such as flight
trajectory patterns, aircraft position by GPS, traffic congestion,
weather and security matters (FAA, 2018). Boehm-Davis
(2008), reports that there are plans to connect all aircraft and

airports in U.S. airspace to the NextGen network and will
constantly share information in real time to improve safety and
productivity especially since there is an expected increase in air
transportation. In addition, Agarwal (2012) reports that the
improvement in operational measures, which covers almost all
of world’s aircraft, is possible to attain a bigger impact in the
short term as compared to the introduction of newer engine and
aircraft technologies.
Tailored arrivals. Currently, the ATM system is tremendously
safe but not entirely efficient. The ATM system still uses a step
system designed in the 1950s, which has a high fuel wastage,
longer flight times and a higher potential to contribute to
aircraft noise (Upstarter, 2015). Hence, this prompted action
from one of aviation industry’s biggest aircraft manufacturer –
Boeing. Boeing together with several other airlines, airports and
partners worldwide has developed a system which helps to save
an estimated 400 to 800 pounds of fuel per aircraft touchdown
(Upstarter, 2015). In addition, this ingenious system can also
reduce air traffic controllers’ workload and allow for better
scheduling and passenger connections (Agarwal, 2012). For
instance, between December 2007 and June 2009, more than
1700 tailored arrivals of B777 and B747 have been completed at
San Francisco airport (Agarwal, 2012). It is estimated that
Boeing’s tailored arrivals system has helped airlines save an
average of 950 kg of fuel and approximately $950 every landing
(Agarwal, 2012). Through a one-year period, four participating
airlines using the tailored arrivals system has managed to save
more than 524,000 kg of fuel, reducing an estimated 1.6 million
kg in GHG emissions (Agarwal, 2012).
Discussion and Recommendations
This capstone paper has delved into the aviation industry
to explore how humanity has impacted the environment and how
the Earth would reach a point of no return by the year 2035 if
nothing is done to address the issues of energy and
sustainability (Aengenheyster et al., 2018). The main purpose of
this paper is to urge stakeholders – aircraft manufacturers,

airlines, airports, policy makers and industry leaders to the
adoption of newer sustainable alternative technologies such as,
the usage of alternative fuels, biomimetics engineering and
machine learning in order to create a sustainable aviation
industry. The findings of this paper indicate that current
methods used by the industry are barely adequate to keep up
with the exponential growth of the aviation industry. However,
GHG emissions and environmental issues can be easily
mitigated with technological innovations in aircraft and engine
designs, by use of modern composites and alternative,
sustainable biofuels and operational improvements.
Agarwal (2018), believes that some of the changes in
operations can be readily put into effect such as Boeing’s
tailored arrivals system and the ongoing development of
NextGen by the FAA. Even though innovations in creating
sustainable biofuels, biomimicry of aircraft design and machine
learning may take some time to implement, the author believes
that it can be made achievable in the short term through the
coordinated efforts of policy makers and aviation industry
stakeholders (Agarwal, 2018).
In addition, this paper has further investigated about how
the utilization of machine learning can help improve aviation
security through facial recognition. Machine learning can
furthermore, be used to create predictions in electricity demand
and generation to create a more environmentally friendly
industry.
Last, there needs to be a combined effort from the aviation
industry and government alike to consider the adoption of new
modern technology such as alternative fuels, biomimetics and
design technology for the future construction of aircraft so as to
reduce GHG emissions and climate change. Immediate adoption
of aforementioned methods may conceivably be achievable;
however, the author feels that there needs to be a further
refinement of such technologies to be fully safe and tested
before it can be used for aviation operations which involves the
safety of millions of lives worldwide.

Conclusion
Global warming and climate change are occurring at a faster
pace than expected. Hence, this ongoing phenomenon requires
humankind’s immediate attention. The aviation industry being
one of the largest influencers in the economy has the obligation
to lessen its environmental impact so as to safeguard the
sustainability of its operations. Current traditional methods and
policies used by the aviation industry is beginning to lose its
effectiveness and therefore there is a need for the adoption of
newer design approaches, computer technologies, operational
improvements and policies to ensure the sustainability of the
environment.
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7-3 Milestone Four: The Ethical Decision-Making Process
Statement of Culture and Social Orientations in the Case Study
When considering culture and social orientations in this study
one should take into account how the child is being raised. In
many foreign countries, it is believed that children should be
seen and not heard. Because of this, it can prove difficult for
children of these cultures to socialize with theirs peers without
hesitation or expressing anxiety.
Statement of Dual Relationships or Multiple Relationship Issues
in the Study
Dual relationships, also referred to as multiple role
relationships, occur when therapists become involved in non-
professional relationships with a person who may already be a
client. This can also occur when a non-professional relationship
evolves with a person who is directly related to a client such as
a family member or close friend. Examples include but are not
limited to, counseling family members or friends, befriending or
becoming intimate with current clients, as well as promising to
engage in future intimate relationship with clients, once
treatment is complete. One possibility of an unethical
relationship that could occur in the longitudinal study I am
focusing on, would be the possibility of the researchers
becoming close with parents and/or family members of the
participants. Due to the extended time period of the research, it
is very possible for to become close and establish relationships
with people who you come in contact with often.
The Ethical Decision-Making Model (Eight-Step Model)
The Ethical Decision-Making Model is a tool used to guide

mental health professionals through the decision-making
process. The steps to this model are as follows:
1. Collect all of the facts. In order to make good ethical
decisions, it is imperative to gather all the data needed to
determine whether the subject at hand truly involves ethics.
This can be done researching ethical principles to see which
ones, if any, the subject relates to.
2. Consult guidelines already available that might apply as a
possible mechanism for resolution. This may involve doing
some research to determine the best possible solution, as well as
to collect the most relevant information from all parties
involved.
3. Pause to consider, as best as possible, all factors that might
influence the decision you will make. This step is especially
important because when making ethical decisions, it is best to
view the situation without bias or prejudice and all culturally
relevant variables should be considered.
4. Consult with a trusted colleague. Seeking input from
colleagues who have a strong commitment to the profession
Ethical decision-making involves a complicated process
influenced by our own perceptions and values, because of this,
we can usually benefit by seeking input from others.
5. Evaluate the rights, responsibilities, and vulnerability of all
the affected parties. This involves taking all the required steps
to ensure no ethical rights are violated, such as informed
consent and confidentiality.
6. Generate alternative decisions. This should be done by
considering all available options and weighing the costs of each
to determine the best route to take.
7. Enumerate the consequences of making each decision. During
this stage of the decision making process, potential
consequences of possible decisions should be discussed,
weighing the costs and effects, both long term as well as short
term.
8. Make the decision. Once all steps have been executed, it is
now time to decide the next course of action and making sure

that this decision is backed by the best possible reasons.
An Alternative Decision-Making Model
Although it is fairly new in decision-making, the restorative
justice model has been used by governments and communities
since the 1990’s to find constructive solutions to interpersonal
conflict, victimization, and anti-social behavior. This
alternative model is held in meetings or conferences where
victims and offenders involved in a crime meet in the presence
of a trained facilitator with their families and friends or others
affected by the crime, to discuss and resolve the offense and its
consequences. This model has proven positive results in that
satisfaction expressed by victims in the handling of their cases
is consistently higher for victims assigned to the restorative
justice model than for victims whose cases were assigned to
normal criminal justice processing.
References
American Psychological Association, APA (2002). Ethical
Principles of Psychologists
and Code of Conduct. American Psychologist, 57, 1060 – 1073.
Koocher, G.P., & Keith-Spiegal, P. (2016). Ethics in
Psychology and the mental health
professions: Standards and Cases. (4th Edition) New York, NY.
Oxford
University Press.

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