Shell Middens

Shell Middens
Summary
Although shell middens can provide vast information on the chronology of ancient populations and
their subsistence patterns, they also pose risk for providing false data as other factors, aside from
humans, could have played part in their formation (Stein, 1996). A problem that Stein feels through
study of their stratification. As such, Stein investigates whether variations in color pigmentation
found in San Juan Island shell midden truly occurred by humans (through technological
advancement), weather or a rise in sea–level (Stein, 1996). After testing the site deposits, Stein
uncovered that the stratigraphic division within the shell midden was not a product of human
construction, but instead, linked to the weathering chemical agent carbonate (Stein, 1996). Stein
further asserts her results as a viable example as to why geoarchaeological phenomena must be
considered in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Furthermore, I feel that Stein merely used the San Juan shell midden as a platform to provoke
geoarchaeological considerations into the archeologist repertoire. Until now, we have only
encountered research articles whose main objective was their research and not implicating the
bigger the picture. In addition, I appreciated that strove to widen the scope of our field, by
demonstrating how false associations could be made. Secondly, I noticed that Stein did not supply
heavy references or spend time in rearticulating the stratification history of research past, and I am
unclear as to why. Finally, I did not feel that Stein's specific work with the San Juan midden offered
much to the field of archaeology less for proving the importance of the land's chronological
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Natural Selection Theory
Evolution, before being called so, was first referred to by Charles Darwin in On the Origins of
Species as descent with modification. This is a very good general explanation for what evolution is.
Darwin believed that over long periods of time, animals' traits changed and developed. This strayed
from the traditional beliefs at the time which was that all species were created by God and did not
change. He also believed that all animals were somehow related. He supported this belief with the
idea that there were transitional species that existed as different animals evolved. His specific theory
was that evolution occurred by means of a mechanism called natural selection.
The idea of natural selection was essentially that some traits were more ... Show more content on
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Two main principles of stratigraphy are the principle of horizontality and the principle of
superposition. They mean that due to gravity, the strata or geological layers settle in horizontal
layers due to gravity and that also those at the top are likely younger than the layers at the bottom.
At first, geologists used fossils found underground to determine different layers. Later, it was
realized that fossils found deep in the ground were unlike those that were currently alive. 75 years
before Darwin first published his essay on evolution, studies of stratigraphy led James Hutton to
believe that there was gradual change amongst species just like there has been gradual geological
change on Earth. Through the strata there were different fossils which documented the evolutionary
history of the

Precambrian Boundary Essay
The Precambrian boundary today remains a highly controversial topic despite the continuous
research and pressures being put on understanding the early Cambrian evolution. Radioactive dating
has seen a dramatic advancement as well as continuous progress in chemo–, bio–, and magneto–
stratigraphy. Laminated stromatolites prevail in the Precambrian fossil date as well as a completely
new perception on ancient life being understood due to the sequence of the chronostratigraphic
period. Biosedimentary structures which occur and form by the permineralisation of unicellular
organisms are an indicator of the Precambrian–Cambrian boundary, and are found outside a dated
period. This has created a completely different understanding and view of fossils ... Show more
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(1987), the Precambrian–Cambrian boundary is located in–between Ediacaran Fauna, which is
found somewhere between 620–700 million years ago and trilobites, such as the fallotospid group.
This creates a period ranging between 30–50 million years in which we can define the Precambrian–
Cambrian boundary, making it difficult to determine an accurate timeframe (Morris, 1987).
Biomineralization is seen as another key indicator of the Precambrian–Cambrian boundary, this has
recently been identified as occurring around 570 million years ago. Kerr (1993) addresses the recent
understanding of the Cambrian explosion, which is believed to have occurred simultaneously with
the presence of hard skeletal parts. Globally, it is seen that Ediacaran Fauna has been well preserved
despite being soft bodied. This has given a good understanding on metazoan evolution (Morris,
1987). Evolution rates of metazoan started to become evaluated with higher precision
geochronology. Ultimately, this resulted in a better understanding of Ediacaran Fauna, leading to the
belief that the lack of Ediacaran Fauna during the Cambrian, compared to its presence in the
Precambrian was due to its continuous evolution, rather than the sudden disappearance due to an
event (Bowring and Erwin,

Carrizo Wash Watershed Essay
Areas immediately west of the study area tend to receive more winter precipitation and have a more
distinctly bimodal precipitation pattern (Dean, 1988:Figure 5.1; Dean, 1996:Figure 5). The sinuous
boundary between the two precipitation patterns is determined by the relative strengths of the air
masses that bring winter and summer moisture, and accordingly its location has shifted over time
(Dean, 1988). Therefore, the Carrizo Wash watershed likely experienced prehistoric periods with
significantly greater winter and/or summer precipitation than is characteristic of the historical
climate record.
Methods
To reconstruct the alluvial history of the Carrizo Wash basin within a high–resolution temporal
framework, field efforts focused on documenting the lithostratigraphy, allostratigraphy, and soil–
stratigraphy at numerous locations throughout the watershed and analytic efforts concentrated on
extensive 14C dating of organic matter collected from study exposures. The stratigraphic framework
is based on more than 60 dated stratigraphic profiles (Table 2). Study sites consist mostly of natural
exposures created by 1–10–m–deep arroyos cut into alluvial fan and floodplain deposits in mid–
elevation portions of the watershed between roughly 1900 and 2000 m, although several locations
were cored with a Giddings rig. Study localities were selected ... Show more content on
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These were designated units 1–7 and were correlated across space with 14C dates or archaeological
material. Two of these units were subdivided into temporally discrete packages identified in multiple
places. These subdivisions were were assigned lower case alphabetic suffixes (e.g., 3a, 3b, etc.).
Subscripts "v" and "f" indicate valley and alluvial fan facies, respectively. Unit 1 dates to the early
Holocene, unit 2 to the middle Holocene, unit 3 to the late Holocene, and units 4–7 to the latest

The Miocene Carbonate : Siliciclastic Deposits Are Widely...
Absract: The Miocene carbonate – siliciclastic deposits are widely exposed along the stretch of
Qabilt Ash Shurfah to Wadi Zaqlum sections, Sirte Basin, NW Libya. These deposits overlies
unconformably the Late Cretaceous Sidi As Sid Formation and overlain unconformably by
Quaternary clastic deposits. Three stratigraphic sections were investigated namely, from north to
south: Qabilat Ash Shurfah, Ras Al Shaqqah and Wadi Zaqlum sections. Lithostrtigraphically, the
Miocene sequence could be differentiated into two main rock units representing shallow deposits
with relatively intermittent deep marine incursions. These are from base to top as follows: 1– Al
Faidiyah Formation and 2– Al Khums Formation (represented at lower part by An Naggazah
Member followed upwards with Ras Al Mannubiyah Member. Detailed foraminiferal investigations
led to the recognition of three foraminiferal zones from base to top: Elphidium macellum /
Miogypsina intermedia and Globigerinoieds trilobus zones covering Al Faidiyah Formation and
assigned it to early Miocene (Burdigalian) age and the Borelis melo melo zone which includes Al
Khums Formation and dated it to Middle Miocene (Langhian to Early Serravallian) age. Detailed
microfacies analysis of the rock units led to the recognition of eleven microfacies types indicating
that the Miocene sequence was deposited in transgressive – regressive cycles ranged from near
shore, warm shallow inner to middle shelf marine environments with development of reefal

Forensic Geology Essay
What is Forensic Geology?
Forensic Geology is a division of forensic geoscience. Whilst this field of geoscience focuses on the
application of environmental science in support of the law or a legal case; forensic geology is
principally concerned with the study of rocks, sediments, minerals and soils in support legislation
(Pye, 2004).
Forensic geology analyses the area under investigation on both a large scale and on a more in depth
microscopic scale. Large scale landscape analysis interprets the initial landscape and its stratigraphy.
Techniques such as ground penetrating radar (GPR) are then used to investigate findings from the
primary investigation. Microscopic forensic geology focuses on material/small matter analysis. The
sample taken from the crime scene and the suspect are studied. This investigation focuses on the
size, shape, colour, chemical composition of the specimens taken. Techniques such as radio carbon
dating, microscopy and laser diffraction are used in order to compare the samples, with the aim of
understanding the crime sequence and answering the key question, 'Who did it?'. These techniques
have advanced considerably over the years. The original concept of using geological knowledge and
techniques to determine a case was first established ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As forensics focuses on the "application of scientific methods and techniques to the investigation of
crime" (Stevenston, 2010) the concept of this being used alongside seismology is surprising.
Forensic seismology can identify where a weapon, such a bomb has come from by identifying the
time at which the incident occurred and by analysing the seismic impact in combination with the
type of weapon used. This is likely to have a growing use in future warfare due to technological
advancement and the increased use and range of missiles. This is an example of continuing futuristic
developments for forensic

A Evolution Of The Late Jurassic
Charophytes are green algae that have been found in fresh water to moderately brackish water
environments. Their gyrogonites are minute oval or round calcareous bodies that represent the
calcified parts of the oogonium i. e. the female reproductive organs. Most of the plant consists of
organic matter that decays shortly after death. Under some circumstances the stems and branches of
the plant become calcified and are also preserved in the geologic record. In the absence of the
planktonic and benthonic foraminifers, ostracodes and charophytes becomes valuable
biostratigraphic tool for geologic analysis and interpretation (Carbonel, 1988; Colin & Lethiers,
1988; Martin–Closas & Schudack, 1996, Schudack, 2000 & 2006). Moreover the charophytes have
been the focus of intensive work since the early 1960, since it was hope to obtain valuable
information on the dating, biostratigraphic and paleoecology of the strata (Schudack, 2002 & 2004).
The present study attempts a comprehensive biostratigraphic evolution of the Late Jurassic – Early
Cretaceous sequence at Messak escarpment based on the stratigraphic distribution of the
charophytes species as this type of microfossils have not been studied before in Libya as well as the
study area has never been studied for charophytes beforehand. On the basis of the stratigraphic
distribution of charophytes it is possible to subdivide the Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous sequence
into four assemblage zones. These are described in ascending

Why Is Alexander Brongniart Important
Alexander Brongniart's earliest scientific papers was accepted in 1791 was on various zoological
and mineralogical. In 1804 Pierre Latreille elevated the batrachians into a separate class, the
amphibians, Brongniart's grouping of the true reptiles into chelonians, saurians, and ophidians has
been retained, in essence, in modern systematics.
In 1807 Brongniart published Elementary mineralogy Treaty, a work assigned as a textbook for his
and Haüy's courses at the Faculty of Sciences and the Natural History Museum. Like other
mineralogists at this time, he could not easily distinguish some fine–grained rocks from true simple
minerals.
Brongniart's early studies in zoology and mineralogy coalesced in the geological work that made
him famous throughout the scientific world. Cuvier had already begun his series of spectacular
reconstructions of extinct mammals from the Paris region; these fossils clearly belonged to several
distinct periods, but he needed a reliable clue to their relative ages. He and Brongniart therefore
collaborated in surveying the region and determining the order of the strata in which the fossils ...
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But this extension of Tertiary stratigraphy over a wider geographical area posed the fundamental
problem of geological facies. Rocks of the same age could not be expected to have the same
lithological characters if they were deposited under different conditions in different areas. Even
within the Paris region Brongniart had recognized lateral changes in lithology; on a wider scale the
changes became more general. It was this that led him to stress the primacy of fossil evidence over
that of lithology as a criterion for age, wherever the two sources of evidence were found to

The Geologic Record
It can be argued by some geologists that significantly more time is lost at bedding planes than is
recorded by the accumulation of sediment and its later lithification into a sedimentary rock. In the
present paper, the continuity of the sedimentary record is investigated. It is hypothesized that
sedimentary strata preserved predominately records episodic sedimentation events and gaps
represented by bedding planes symbolize more time than the preserved strata. The incompleteness
of the geologic record and the role of rare events was studied using data gathered from a variety of
sedimentary outcrops and cores. The author addressed his hypothesis using this collected data in
terms of sediment preservation and represented preservation as a function of two modes of
geomorphic processes: Magnitude and frequency. The author tested his hypothesis using relatively
modern storm events to represent sedimentation, showing how daily processes can distort the
geologic record, and by using ancient examples to illustrate how some storms can be preserved in
spectacular condition.
The results of this study support the hypothesis that the stratigraphic record represents episodic
phenomena rather than continuous deposition. When describing fluvial processes, the study was
significant in that infrequent, extremely high magnitude fluvial events in a canyon located below
base level leaves sediment deposits that are preserved for a long period of time. In contrast, frequent
floods occurring the

Evidence Of The Dynamic Changes Of Earth 's Surface...
ESS Goal 4 Guided Notes
Evidence of the dynamic changes of Earth's surface through time is found in the geologic record.
2 Types of Age
Absolute Age: The number of years since the something formed
Ex. 150 million years old or 10 thousand years old
Relative Age: The age compared to the ages of other rocks
Ex. Older than this rock or younger than that rock
Note: Relative age is much easier to figure out and can be found using clues on Earth. Absolute age
is very difficult to calculate and can often be impossible to get an exact value.
Relative Dating
Relative dating does not establish a specific age of a something. In geology, scientists analyze the
rock layers above and below a specific segment of rock to determine its relative age.
Absolute Age
Radiometric Dating (often called radioactive dating) is a technique used to date materials such as
rocks or carbon, usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of naturally
occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, using known decay rates
Half–Life: the time required for half of an element's atoms in a sample to change to the decay
product.
Law of Superposition
Sedimentary rocks form when new sediments are deposited on top of old layers of sediment. As the
sediments accumulate they are compressed and harden into sedimentary rock layers.
Scientists use the Law of Superposition to determine the relative age of a layer of sedimentary rock.
*The Law of Superposition is that an

Geology Of The Oaks Belt
Geology of the Oaks Belt The Oaks Belt is composed of mafic to felsic volcanic and volcaniclastic
rocks, clastic sedimentary rocks, iron formation and several generations of intrusive rocks. Mafic
volcanic rocks constitute the bulk of the stratigraphy in the OB and occur as both pillowed basalts
and massive flows. They are aphanitic to fine–grained and dark green to black (Frey and Venzke,
1991). Mafic volcaniclastic rocks are more common lower in stratigraphy. Intermediate volcanic
rocks occur almost exclusively as tuffs, are feldspar–phyric and contain 20–30% mica and
amphibole. A package of felsic volcaniclastic rocks tentatively defined as fragmental rhyolites to
dacites occur near the stratigraphic top of the volcanic pile and directly underlie massive sulfide and
iron–oxide exhalative horizons. These highly siliceous rocks are mica and amphibole–poor, and
occur as both quartzphyric fragments and tuffs. Felsic agglomerate rocks are common and
sometimes show a dacite to rhyolite transition down stratigraphy. Fragments in agglomerates are
sometimes set in a tonalite matrix (Frey and Venzke, 1991). Clastic rocks are most common in the
central part of the study area and sometimes display graded bedding as well as slumping and soft–
sediment deformation (Frey and Venzke, 1991).Chemical sedimentary rocks in the OB include iron
formation and chert. Given the tendency of massive sulfide deposits to occur in brecciated piles of
tuff fragments with associated footwall

Archaeology And Relative Dating Analysis
Throughout the past two centuries, archaeology has undergone a series of evolutionary changes in
methodology. Archaeological methods help archaeologists uncover sites of ancient civilizations and
accurately analyze them. Three commonly used methods are research design, patterning, and dating.
These techniques are particularly known for their application in famous sites of excavation such as
Schliemann's unearthing of ancient Troy, Carter's search for King Tut, and Kenneth Feder's
analyzation of the prehistoric site of Wood Lily. The methods themselves, as used by these
archaeologists, show the chronology of the progress of archaeology and its techniques. The
preliminary course of action before a survey or excavation can take place is called ... Show more
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There are two types of dating: relative dating and chronometric. Relative dating places artifacts,
features or sites into a sequence determined by analyzing stylistic changes found in different layers
of stata. It is of course, relative, which means there is no exact dating. Stratigraphy is a relative
dating technique that is most helpful when comparing the age of sites, (to determine which one is
older), or artifacts, as the stylistic changes can help conclude which era they belonged to and
possibly even which culture. The second type of dating, chronometric, is a bit more specific and can
provide exact dates according to a calendar or a range of years for artifacts, features, sites and/or
ecofacts. By far the most accurate chronometric dating method is dendrochronology, which
determines the exact year a tree was cut down by analyzing patterns of tree rings within a master
sequence. Additionally, within chronometric dating, there are radiometric dating methods such as
carbon dating. It is based on radioactive decay, which occurs at a constant and measurable rate,
making it a great natural clock. Heinrich Schliemann (a merchant, not an archaeologist) loosely used
relative dating in his search for Homer's Troy in the 1870's. He had enough knowledge of strata to
understand that in order to find Troy, he would have to excavate several layers of strata within the
area he deduced to be the previous location of Troy. He used relative dating, stratigraphy
specifically, to count the layers before he reached Troy, however, his dating was very off, so using
dynamite to get through the layers, he bombed nine levels of history, one of which today is
presumed to be the actual level of Troy. Had he spent more time on research design or patterning,
maybe collected samples of several stratums he would've uncovered that Troy was not as low as he
had

Wandilla Terrane Formation
INTRODUCTION
The New England Fold Belt (NEFB) of eastern Australia is composed of variably deformed
terranes, going in age from Early Palaeozoic to Late Triassic. These different terranes are for the
most part understood to reflect an alternate tectonic component, or different orogenic events.
However, is mostly believed to have developed within an extensively convergent plate margin
setting (Day et al., 1978, 1983; Henderson, 1980; Fergusson et al. 1988).
Exposures that reveal the complete subduction complex rocks can be seen in the Wandilla and
Shoalwater formation of the Gladstone–Yeppoon area of central Queensland.
The aim of this short review is to present the character and interpretation of the Wandilla terrane in
the New England Fold ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1988, 1990). The presences of fossils in its formation are nearly not present. However, the presence
of large number of sedimentary ooids and oval–shaped crinoids' fossils implied its age to be Early
Carboniferous (Fleming et al. 1975). Figure 2. Show the Structural map of the Wandilla(Wt) and
Shoalwater terranes (St) in the Rockhampton–Gladstone district. Image is source from (fergusson,
Henderson and Leitch, 1990).
Detailed studies by Fergusson et al. (1988, 1990a, b) has documented three stages of deformation
for the structure of the Wandilla terrane. These are summarized as D1, D2, and D3 deformation. For
this review, a quick summary of these deformation are as follow.
 D1 developed extensive mélange of lenticular features in which platter particles of greywacke and
tuff emerge in a mudstone matrix with scaly fabrics (S1 ).
 D2 Developed complete cleavage (S2 ) with related folds (F2 ) as show in figure 3.
 D3 Structures are conjugate network of strike– slip faults that are steeply dipping developed by
NE– SW aligned compressing and related fault breccias and

Repton-Barrow Stratigraphy Essay
APRIL GRACZ #11212645 ANTH 230 REPTON BARROW STRATIGRAPHY The Repton Long
Barrow sits between the parish church and the River Esk in Repton, Bluffshire, U.K. Last summer, I
examined evidence for previous disturbance(s) of the site and assessed the extent to which the
original Neolithic burial mound remained intact. I excavated two different sites on the mound, one
on the east end and another on the west end of the barrow. While excavating and cleaning each of
the sections, I recovered artifacts and human bones. I was also able to draw a stratigraphic profile of
each excavation site. Using documentary sources pertaining to the Repton Long Barrow site to assist
in my interpretation of the history, I was able to reconstruct the ... Show more content on
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This also accounts for 6 and 8 in Figure 3.3. In Figure 3.3, in the section labeled 5, I found a coin
from 288 – 337 A.D. Because this section was a mixture of chalk rubble and topsoil and by the date
of the coin, we can conclude this section is back fill from the building of the pathway in 1136.
Having already noted the chalk for both figures are the same and 4 from West is the same as 6 from
East, we also notice that 9 and 13 from East are the same silt as 7 and 9 from West. We can assume
the same conclusion regarding the "pockets" being ditches that were filled in with silt by erosion.
This can be further proven with the antler pick found in layer 13 East, as this tool was used to build
the burial mound. On this side of the barrow, there was an excavation of the Priestess's Barrow in
1744. Knowing that they found bits of bronze metal and a glass Chalice, we can conclude that layer
7 West is back fill from this excavation because I found bronze and glass dating from the first
century in this layer. Layer 8 East matches the top layer of soil. This can be accounted for by erosion
prior to the excavation in 1744. Along with the back fill from layer 7, layer 10 matches layer 7, so
we can conclude that this is also back fill. Due to a penny, dated 1739, found in layer 2, we can
conclude that this layer is also back fill from the excavation in 1744. We can assume the penny fell
off of one's

How Ammonite Causes
Ammonite taxa often occur in narrow time ranges, arguably making them the best index fossils to
determine the ages of strata of certain time intervals (Callomon, 2003). The fossil remnants of
ammonites act as the major basis for the identification of Jurassic and Cretaceous strata in the
Sverdrup Basin, reinforced by the presence of bivalves, dinoflagellates, and foraminifera (Galloway
et al., 2013). While macrofossils such as ammonites are used to define every stage of the Jurassic
and Cretaceous periods in the Sverdrup Basin, detailed chronostratigraphy is limited by the rare
occurrence of ammonite fauna (Callomon, 2003). This may be due to the colder climate conditions
of the Arctic Boreal Sea relative to the subtropical conditions of the

Time and Chronology in Archeology
Time and Chronology in Archaeology
Why is it important for archaeologists to establish chronologies and what are the strengths and
weaknesses of absolute and relative dating methods in their establishment?
By Liam Cornish
In this essay will discuss what chronologies are and why they are extremely important to
archaeology. It will also discuss the different types of chronologies as well as the varying methods
of establishing them. Time can be determined in different ways, absolutely and relatively. There are
strengths and weaknesses to both of these ways of recording and measuring time and both tell
archaeologists different information about parts of the archaeological record. Both are also highly
important to the field archaeology.
A chronology is an ordering of events and items from the past which is based on time. In his journal
article on the seriation method Robert C. Dunnell defines chronology as: "The stipulation of the
temporal dimension of a body of data" (Dunnell 1970:305). This shows how chronologies are
intrinsically linked to time in archaeology. They are what allows archaeologists to study time and its
relation with various parts of the archaeological record. It also allows times effects on the past of
humanity to be observed and measured.
Chronologies are vitally important to the study of the archaeological record. Indeed Erin C.
Dempsey, in her journal article which deals with the construction of valid chronologies, said that
"Like time, chronology is of

Analysis: The Permian Period
The Permian Period was the final period of the Paleozoic Era. This period lasted from 299 to 251
million years ago. The transition from the Paleozoic Era and the Mesozoic Era was the Permian
Period. During the end of the Permian Period, Earth's largest mass extinction occurred. The time
period was named as it was by a British geologist named Roderick Murchison in 1841. He went on a
tour to Imperial Russia to include the, "vast series of beds of marl, schist, limestone, sandstone, and
conglomerate" overlay the Carboniferous formations in the eastern part of Russia. Murchison named
it after the kingdom of Permia, and the present city of Perm near the Ural Mountains of Russia.
During this period, Gondwana and Euramerica formed Pangea. The collision of tectonic plates
caused volcanic activity. This ended up forming the Urals, Alps, Appalachians, and Rocky
Mountains. Pangea was shaped like the letter "C". The northern landmasses would become Europe
and Asia. North and South America formed from the curved part of the "C." India, Australia, and
Antarctica made up the lower part of the land mass. In this landmass was the Tethys Ocean. There
were also glaciers in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Synapsids had a skull with a single temporal opening that is believed to have developed into
mammals. Sauropsids had a skull with two openings and were the ancestors of reptiles, including
birds and dinosaurs. During the early period, Synapsids were the dominant group. The earliest
Synapsids were the Pelycosaurs; it included a genus called Dimetrodon. The animal had a large
lizard like body with a bony "sail" on it's back. However the skulls, jaws, and teeth are closer to
mammals than reptiles. Lystrosaurus was another genus of the Synapsids; it was 3 feet long and
looked like a cross between a lizard and a hippopotamus. A Lystrosaurus had a flat face with two
tusks and legs angled away from the body (similar to the typical reptilian

Uses and Abuses of Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy
Uses and Abuses of Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy
Sequence Stratigraphy
Sequence stratigraphy is a discipline studying the linkages within the chronostratigraphic framework
of sequences which is bounded by unconformities and correlative conformities. It enables
interpretation of sedimentary strata as products of relative sea–level change. The sequence
stratigraphy uses sub–dividing surfaces to provide a framework to the interpretation of the
depositional settings of the sedimentary section and uses the interpretation for further prediction of
the extent and character of the component sedimentary facies. Sequence stratigraphy was originally
designed for seismic sections, but the principles can be applied to outcrop, core, and well logs. It
now provides a powerful method and is widely used in the petroleum exploration and prospects.
The sequence is a relatively conformable succession of genetically related strata bounded at their
upper surface and base by unconformities and their correlative conformities (Vail, et al., 1977). And
it is composed of a succession of genetically linked deposition systems (systems tracts) and is
interpreted to be deposited between eustatic–fall inflection points (Posamentier, et al., 1988). The
systems tracts are divided into Falling Stage Systems Tract/Forced Regressive Wedge Systems Tract
(FSST/ FRWST), Lowstand Systems Tract (LST), Transgressive Systems Tract (TST) and
Highstand Systems Tract (HST); and are bounded by surfaces which consist of

Anthropocene: A New Era
Anthropocene the Start of a New Era:
Anthropocene refers to the start of a time where human influence on the earth's ecological and
geological state rapidly increased. This rapid increase is known as the "Great Acceleration" which
takes place from the mid–20th century and continues on today. A push was made to distinguish this
time from the previous epoch known as the Holocene period because of the dramatic impact that
humanity is now having on the environment. The Anthropocene period is characteristically different
because the changes in the ecological environment are being rapidly affected and changed due to
human activity not purely natural means. While humans were active during the Holocene period
they did not begin to affect their environment ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Human activity has begun to create its own geochemical signatures and thus its own global markers
through various activities. The production of phosphorus through mining has doubled the
weathering rate of phosphorus released during the Holocene period. This has led to the argument
that human processes have had the largest impact on the nitrogen cycle in the past 2.5billion years.
However, these dramatic changes have stratigraphic consequences. The Greenland Ice Sheat Project
2 ice core has shown that the greatest decline in Nitrogen values occur between the 1950s and
1980s. This decrease in Nitrogen levels shows a distinct difference from the Holocene levels
indicating the beginning of a new epoch, the Anthropocene

How The Archaeological Record Dating Is Formed And Altered...
Discuss how the Archaeological Record in cave or settlement sites is formed and altered through
time. Include references to specific site formation processes and the geoarchaeological methods
used to investigate them. This essay will be addressing the formation of Archaeological Record in
Settlement Sites and some of the methods used to analyse them. There will be an explanation of
what a settlement site is and what the archaeological record is, giving examples of what is used to
investigate these sites. There will be information given on different types of formation processes and
examples of these processes. There will be information on four types of methods used in
geoarchaeology which give archaeologists information on the site, and examples of these in use
through case studies. The settlement site is where residual evidence of past activity is preserved and
able to be investigated through its archaeological record. To understand how the record in settlement
sites is formed, we must first understand what we are looking for. The Archaeological Record can be
split into three sections; material remains of the past, material culture, and sources used by
archaeologists (Lucas, 2012). For this topic we will be concentrating on material culture. Material
culture refers to the physical objects and artefacts used by a society. These can be both organic – a
substance which was once living, like plants or bacteria – or inorganic – a substance derived from
non–living matter.

rocks, clastic sedimentary rocks, iron formation and several generations of intrusive rocks. Mafic
volcanic rocks constitute the bulk of the stratigraphy in the OB and occur as both pillowed basalts
and massive flows. They are aphanitic to fine–grained and dark green to black (Frey and Venzke,
1991). Mafic volcaniclastic rocks are more common lower in stratigraphy. Intermediate volcanic
rocks occur almost exclusively as tuffs, are feldspar–phyric and contain 20–30% mica and
amphibole. Felsic volcaniclastic rocks vary from rhyolites to dacites and occur mainly near the
stratigraphic top of the volcanic pile where they directly underlie massive sulfide and iron formation
deposits. These highly siliceous rocks are mica and amphibole–poor, and occur as both quartzphyric
fragments and tuffs. Felsic agglomerate rocks transition from dacite to rhyolite down stratigraphy
(Frey and Venzke, 1991). Clastic rocks are most common in the central part of the study area and
display graded bedding as well as slumping and soft–sediment deformation (Frey and Venzke,
1991).Chemical sedimentary rocks in the OB include iron formation and chert. The tendency of
massive sulfide deposits to occur in brecciated piles of tuff fragments with associated footwall
alteration indicates they are not seawater precipitates. Chert is typically sulfidic, with pyrite and
pyrrhotite as the main sulfide minerals.

The World 's Terrifying Impact On Earth Justifies New...
"Humanity's terrifying impact on Earth justifies new Anthropocene epoch" is the title of an article
published in the Guardian newspaper in October 2014, the purpose of this essay is to assess if this
statement was and is true. The geologic timescale comprises of Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs and
Ages, all of which fit into each other with Eon being the largest. Key geological events in the life of
the planet are used to mark the transition from one of these chapters to another. Fig 1 has been
created to illustrate where we currently are in the geological timescale and the dates and events that
led us here. Fig 1: Where we are today – based on the Geologic Timescale (ICS 2016) Eon – long
period of time Era – major division of geological time Period – unit of geological time during which
a system of rocks formed Epoch – unit of geological time that is a subdivision of a period Age –
subdivision of geologic time that divides an epoch into smaller parts Subdivisions of the Holocene
have not been agreed; Early, Middle and Late Sub–series/Sub–epochs have been proposed, Journal
of Quaternary Science (2012). Fig 2: Units in stratigraphy and geochronology As well as the units
for the geologic timescale there are also units for stratified rock (time–rock units) as shown in Fig 2
and defined in Fig 3. There have been proposals since 1990 (Zalasiewicz et al 2004) that the
distinctions between these timescales is now redundant with the introduction of Global Stratotype
Sections

Argumentative Essay: How Are Fossils Made?
In Ice Age 1 Manny, Sid and Diego walk through ice caves. Sid walks down a different corridor than
the others and finds creatures frozen in the ice walls. I tell you this mostly to take up sentences, but
it also has a point. Animals and plants fossilize in different ways depending on the habitats they live
in. The creatures Sid found are frozen, making them a fossil, but only because of the rapid freezing
of the ice age.
Fossils; do you know what a fossil is? Don't answer that, it is a rhetorical question. Fossils are the
preserved remains of plants or animals. How are fossils made? Stop thinking, oh the animal dies and
gets buried under a ton of dirt. That would just cause decomposition and worm food. Dying is only
the first step to becoming fossilized. Organisms become fossilized by getting trapped in amber,
trapped in asphalt, buried in rock, frozen, or they can become petrified which is when minerals
replace the decomposing organism. Being trapped in asphalt is the most common of these. Now to
find a fossil you grab a shovel and start digging, right? WRONG! Chances are the bones, tracks,
poop or whatever else was buried really deep. So fossils are usually found when the earth quakes or
erosion happens. Some weirdo might stumble upon them and call up the pros and tell them to come
excavate the find. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The tar pits are home to over 660 fossils of different species. Ninety percent of the fossils were
carnivores. Once again these fossils came to be, because of their habitat. The organisms probably
forgot about their mothers telling them not to play in the tar but decided to be the disobedient child
and ended up getting stuck. Now in Antarctica most of the fossils are from the Mesozoic Era. Fossils
include snails, seashells, ammonite lie squids, squids, and octopus fossils. Because of the place they
lived in they became fossils. Here in Idaho most fossils are of the petrified

The Field Development Of A Master Of Engineering
PENOBSCOTS FIELD DEVELOPMENT
BY
OGUNLANA OLAOLUWA
B00683781
DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF PROCESS ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCE
REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
ENGINEERING
AUGUST 2015
Table of Contents
Table of figures 2
Introduction 3
Stratigraphy 6
Methodology 7
Adjusting the range for the Gamma ray logs and Deep induction Logs 7
Calculated the Volume of shale 8
Water saturation determination 8
Formation Permeability determination 10
Up scaling of reservoir properties and creating realizations 10
Net–To–Gross calculation 10
Rock physics and Fluid models 11
Volume estimation 12
Well completion 14
Development Strategy 15
Strategy 1 17
Strategy 2 19
Economics 22 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The rights of this field were initially awarded to Petro–Canada–Shell, but they have since
abandoned the field due to the discovery of non–commercial oil and Penobscot has been put up for
sale again by the Canada Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board in both 2007 and 2013 although

they are yet to receive a bid for the field. Figure 1: the Penobscot survey located at about 25km from
Stable Island
In 1976 Petro–Canada–Shell who owned the right to this field drilled the first exploratory well
(Penobscot L–30) to determine the properties and productivity of the field, Penobscot L–30 was
drilled through 138m of seawater to a depth of 4237.5m, in the following year (1977) another
exploratory well was drilled (Penobscot B–41) was drilled by Shell–Petro Canada at 3km northwest
of Penobscot L–30, it's also been said to have been at an up dip of 10m off Penobscot L–30 due to
correlations of stratigraphy tops, Penobscot B–41 was drilled through 118m of water to a total depth
of 3414m, although no significant hydrocarbon was recovered, indicating that B–41 is a dry well
unlike L–30, this enabled us learn more information about the structural and stratigraphic features of
the Penobscot field. There are two major faults in the area forming an en echelon pattern. The can
therefore be subdivided into two separate reservoir regions, the area where

The Role Of Active Faults On Fracture Development
The third order fracture distribution is strongly dependent on the lithofacies architecture, especially
the distribution of bedding plane discontinuities. Fractures in stratified parts of the sequence form a
nested structure with a high degree of mechanical units at the scale of individual sedimentary beds.
In more homogeneous rocks, a widely–spaced background network of lithology–irrelevant fractures
is overprinted by more densely spaced fractures terminating at significant mechanical decoupling
surfaces.
Relationships between fracture stratigraphy and stratigraphic fracture development controls for
different scale ranges as formalized in the hierarchical fracture model for the Petra case study can be
used to provide constraints for nested fractured reservoir models. This methodology can help
determine an appropriate homogenization scale for geo–cellular fracture models, improve the
prediction of the discrete sub–seismic fracture distribution compared to conventional down–scaling
techniques and improve the constraints of stratigraphic control on wellbore up–scaling. This
procedure becomes increasingly more powerful when combined with the effects of other important
development controls, such as the influence of active faults on fracture development.
Acknowledgements
We kindly acknowledge the help of J. Klaver, F. Carranza Dumon, R. Donselaar, N. Hardebol, H.
Boro, and B. Geiss. We thank the Netherlands Centre for Integrated Solid Earth Systems (ISES) and
Total E&P

Compare And Contrast Relative Dating And Radioactive Dating
There is multiple ways to determine the age of fossils. Two well known techniques are relative
dating and radioactive dating. Even though they are similar, they both come at the situation a
different way. They are both different and they have their own techniques. Relative dating uses the
location within the rocks layers. Radioactive dating uses information that they gather from the decay
of radioactive substances within an object. What's the difference in relative and radioactive dating?
All though, both of these techniques are used for the same thing, they are very different from each
other. They both use different types of things to measure how old the fossils are. Radioactive dating
is something that people use to determine the age of rocks. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
They were able to learn about dinosaurs and how old they were and when they were discovered by
radioactive dating. Radioactive dating allows scientist to record things in the past. In order to do
this, they have to use the ratios of isotopes to determine the age of the rocks and fossils. Some
chemicals that they use in radioactive dating are Carbon, uranium and potassium. Each one of these
elements are made up of atoms. In each atom, there is a nucleus. Inside of that, we find a neutron,
and when they become unstable, they let go of energy. When they let go of this energy, it is called
radioactivity. It occurs when the nucleus has an excessive amount of neutrons. The variation of
neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes are a form of an element that are unstable. When going
through radioactivity, the unstable isotopes break down and form a new element. The isotopes are
never destroyed but they turn into something else. As far as the accuracy goes, people are proven to
believe that this is a very accurate method. They say this because radioactive dating is based on
radioactive decay of unstable isotopes. They have ways of proving that this method is in fact correct
and very accurate. They say that radioactive

rocks, clastic sedimentary rocks, iron formation and several types of intrusive rocks. Mafic volcanic
rocks constitute the bulk of the stratigraphy in the OB and occur as both pillowed basalts and
massive flows. They are aphanitic to fine–grained and dark green to black (Frey and Venzke 1991).
Mafic volcaniclastic rocks are more common lower in the stratigraphy. Intermediate volcanic rocks
occur almost exclusively as tuffs, are feldspar–phyric and contain 20–30% mica and amphibole.
Felsic volcaniclastic rocks vary from rhyolites to dacites and occur mainly near the stratigraphic top
of the volcanic pile where they directly underlie massive ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Dark brown to black tourmalinte laminae and beds contained 40% tourmaline, 40% pyrrhotite, and
20% quartz, and reach thicknesses up to 30 cm. Iron formation beds are typically intermixed with
iron silicates and sulfides, and are up to one meter thick. These individual beds of iron formation
occur as stacked lenses that span over 50 meters vertically through stratigraphy (Frey and Venzke
1991). Intrusive rocks in the OB vary from mm–scale dikes and veins to meter–scale sills and dikes.
They vary compositionally through ultramafic, pyroxenite, mafic, granodiorite, and granitic (Frey
and Venzke 1991). Ultramafic rocks are altered and difficult to constrain as intrusive or extrusive.
Sparse pyroxenite dikes and veins are coarse grained and sometimes biotite rich suggesting
lamprophyre affinity. Gabbroic intrusives are the most common in the OB and occur as swarms of
small dikes with chill margins (Frey and Venzke 1991). They are a cut locally by felsic intrusive
rocks. Granodiorite dikes are siliceous and porphyritic. They locally occur as a series of small dikes
but are more common as thick sills. These intrusive rocks may contain up to 60% xenolithic
amphibole, biotite, magnetite, tourmaline, and pyrrhotite. Granodiorite dikes intrude mafic rocks,
and are in turn cut by granitic dikes. Granitic intrusive rocks occur as small dikes composed of
potassium feldspar and quartz. These small dikes cross–cut the intermediate and

Nicolas Steno's Success
One particular scientist who changed the world as people knew it, or as people had known it was
Nicolas Steno. This is true because most of his work and studies centered upon the past. He is most
remembered for his work in the study of organisms. Steno studied geology and anatomy,
revolutionizing the way people knew the world and themselves in their own time. A Danish
scientist, born in 1638, he converted to Catholicism in 1667 and later became a priest. He was
simply fascinated with the world that God had created and wanted to explore it at its core. In fact, he
kept a close relationship with God and was later appointed by Pope Innocent XI as both Vicar
Apostolic of Nordic Missions and Bishop of Titopolis.A man of both faith and science, Steno ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He truly embodies the latin phrase Fides et Ratio. This saying emphasizes the importance of both
faith and reason and their importance in the Catholic worldview. Steno really does prove that faith
and reason do not compete with each other for both attention and allegiance. Rather, proper faith and
proper reason are, in fact, truly complementary. Nicolas Steno embodies this teaching because
throughout the time that he was making all of these revolutionary contributions to science,
becoming the founder of geology, he was before everything else in in his life, above all, a true man
of faith and a man of God. Saint Nicolas Steno will forever have a lasting impact on the Catholic
Church and the broad field of geology. The contributions this man made to both science and to God
are really immeasurable. Science, at his core, really means knowledge, this knowledge comes from
none other than God, the Creator. People today need to realize this just as Nicolas Steno did. Steno
fully accepted and even embraced the fact that everything that he was studying had come from God.
This even encouraged his pursuit of furthering himself in the Catholic Church. Steno was a true
saint, and calls on those following him to be the same, using both faith and

Shoebox Log Analysis
Multiple educational institutions have long since sited the value of hands on activities. Included in
this is the value that hands on lab activity can provide for students in an introductory archaeology
undergraduate course. I aim to outline how to conduct a shoebox style dig that has been adapted for
use in a undergraduate setting allow for students to gain a further understanding of artefact context,
taphonomic conditions and stratigraphy. Taking this one step further from the traditional shoebox
dig such as the one BROWN this activity incorporates aspects of the reconstruction of artefacts. All
of the topics addressed in this activity are a part of any standard introduction to archaeology course.
Thus this activity serves a variety of purposes, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
During undergraduate programs, students are more easily granted fieldwork access creating the
realistic conditions Brown agues that a non–transparent dig creates. However as was shown when
conducted at Adelphi University, the transparency of the boxes do not take away from the challenge
or process of excavation rather it allows students to visualise a concept in a controlled setting
without factoring natural disruptions as can be seen during excavations in the field. Thus while
Browns activity does contain elements which I have incorporated, I have decided to stick with how
this activity was conducted using the clear boxes to allow for a visual representation of a
stratagraphic profile. This is a concept that is heavily incorporated into numerous activities almost
all of which are aimed and children ranging from K2–14. By limiting these activities to children of
this age, institutions are unable to build upon and apply more complex ideas and concepts as well as
the analytical aspect of excavations and data recording. Concepts not normally covered under the
national curriculum are studied in depth during undergraduate classes thus allowing for students to
apply what they learn in class to a controlled and hands on activity. Further, the resources available
to higher education institutions allow for instructors to take advantage of the resources not normally
available. Further, lecturers have the flexibility of making these as simple or complex as they wish,
all while being able to maintain some level of control over the excavation; something that cannot be
done as easily when on site due to the unpredictable nature of fieldwork. Thus this should be seen as
a

A Geological Review Of A Play At Brae Oilfield And...
Introduction
This report illustrates a geological review of a play within the South Brae oilfield and determines the
potential of reservoirs within this area. It is hard to predict and provide ability for oil companies to
license an oilfield before drilling therefore it is dependent upon several core sections available to
investigate petrographically the northern North Sea. Cores and petrophysical data extracted from
blocks 16/7a–A9, 16/7a–A17 and 16/7a–A21 related to licenses in block 16/07a found in the South
Viking Graben area are provided and analysed in order to resolve whether exploration licenses
should be purchased and the possible drilling of an exploration well.
Geological setting
The South Brae oilfield is mainly Kimmeridgian to mid–Volgian in age, however on some accounts
it may possibly be of Oxfordian (Turner et al, 1987). The oilfield is heavily developed along the
western, fault–bounded margin of the South Viking Graben approximately 161 miles NE of
Aberdeen flanking Fladen Ground Spur (see Fig.1). The Upper Jurassic rifting of the South Viking
Graben encountered, pronounced movement along the western bounding fault as syn–rift extension
proceeded (Harris & Fowler, 1987, Gregory et al, 2007). Syn‐tectonic deposition throughout the
Jurassic ensued the formation of a distinct sediment wedge thinning eastwards into the basin,
outlining the main phase of fault movement down the boundary fault (Roberts, 1991). As a result,
the Brae oilfields are a series of

The Pitts River Basin
There are several ways to interpret for the variability in archaeological data in the Pitts River Basin
of northwestern Australia, but first, the history and the archaeology must be exhibited. The entire
site used to be underwater because the ocean levels had not stabilized 5000 years ago, so a lot of
artifacts surfaced once the levels stabilized and the land dried up. In the basin, there were two types
of people who were very contemporary. This is suggested by knowing that hunters and gatherers
were marrying outside their group and that the women were the ones who hunted and built this kind
of economy. The Pitts River Basin workbook problem shows three major differences in the
archaeological record of the main sites of Disaster Beach, Bonzakilla "B", and Gray's Creek. At
Disaster Beach, a refuse pile was discovered containing shellfish remains. The pile most likely came
to be because of Cardium Sp., which was located two–hundred yards inland from the high tide line.
The inland did not have a complete rainforest to support the semi–sedentary system, but there were
eucalyptus plants that helped. The high points were the only logical place with grain processing and
potential religious activity like having a Shaman look over the sites. However, the high points did
not have any detectable stratigraphy when they were studied. Carbon dating of three shell samples,
in three separate units was taken, and then returned. The shell fragments found on Disaster Beach
were dated at the

Kathryn Kamp: The Lizard Man Village Site
In the science of archeology there are four goals that an archaeologist attempts to discover about an
artifact, group of people, or a certain culture. These goals of archeology are: to describe the thing,
place, and time, determine the function to recreate past behavior, determine how and why cultures
change, and the cultural meaning behind objects. Archeology has evolved over time to better support
those who are trying to accomplish these main goals; they range from improvements in the global
positioning system to better locate sites with historical meaning, to new forms of dating to receive a
more accurate date. One archeologist named Kathryn Kamp explores all of these techniques and
ideas as she excavated the Lizard Man Village site and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The abundance of pottery showed that ceramics were an important way of life for the Sinagua.
Similar to the armbands, pottery had an emotional connection to those who created it, it was a form
of art that they used to represent themselves and was often used in ceremonial capacities. The
pottery also had practical uses such as cooking, and storing food. These pots were mostly formed
using a coil method to start but then transitioning to the paddle–and–anvil technique. This pottery
was dated using dendrochronology and archaeomagnetic to date the rooms where the potter was
found, from there it could be related to the room through stratigraphy and related to other variations
of pottery through seriation. Pottery was such large part of the village that it was used as a trade
commodity between different cultures and groups. It was found that only about 90% of the ceramics
at Lizard Man were Sinaguan. The other 10% was used to trade for other ceramics, turquoise, ball
courts, alcohol, obsidian, and so

Exercise 2: Stratigraphy And Site Formation Processes
Exercise 2: Stratigraphy and Site Formation Processes
Based on the drawing, Culture D is most likely the oldest. Most of the artifacts labeled as being
from Culture D are in the bottom layer of soil. Though they do crop up in all the other layers, they
appear to be disturbed rather than primary. Several are impeded in the temple, meaning that the
culture that built the temple probably used dirt which happened to contain the artifacts was used
unintentionally. The other D artifacts that appear closer to and at the surface were likely churned up
by the constant disruption of the soil from the following culture. The third oldest culture was
probably Culture C. There is a clear layer under which most of the D artifacts were buried. A trash
pit ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Most likely, during construction, other cultures unintentionally used dirt containing said artifacts.
Reuse: Reuse in this particular case is hard to identify. One possible example in the artifacts from
Culture A embedded in the walls of the house. It is possible that objects created by A where broken
and then inserted into the walls to help provide support or additional strength.
A possible history of the site would include the initial settlement by Culture D. There is no evidence
of any artificial structures. It is possible that they used biodegradable materials, meaning that
evidence of their settlement decomposed. After Culture D abandoned the site. Culture C then settled
the area. Assuming that Culture B built the temple, there is no evidence of structures. There is a
trash pit, so it can be inferred that Culture C did live in the area. Because their artifacts were so close
together, it is possible that Cultures C and B lived very close in time. It is possible that Culture C
abandoned the site due to some kind of natural disaster or that they were pushed out by Culture B.
As they settled the area, Culture B dug up the dirt in the process of building their temple. That dirt
contained artifacts of Culture C. It is also possible that they found artifacts from Culture C during
this process and found them significant enough to include them in their own burials. Once Culture B
moved off the area, their remains were most likely buried until Culture A found the site. As their
house was built directly on top of the temple, it is possible that Culture A used the remains of the
temple to strengthen the foundation of their house. Because the area was settled so many times, the
soil was dug up and churned many times, meaning that artifacts from each culture were spread
throughout the various strata of the

Blombos Cave
Stratigraphy is one of the primary contexts that the archaeologists look at in field work because
stratigraphy, combining with the law of superposition, is essential and very helpful in deciphering
the approximate time that the antiquities have been under the ground. Beyond that, the stratigraphy
also serves in some other functions that help understand the archaeological record profoundly.
During the excavation of the workshop discovered in Blombos Cave, the stratigraphy provides a
basic background for the study. First of all, as stated in the source article, the archaeologists used the
methods of OSL dating, thermoluminescence dating as well as uranium–series methods to identify
the ages of each soil layer, which the archaeologists can further

Pakicetus: The Evolution Of Whales
The evolutionary path of a whale is a fascinating process of a terrestrial mammal that evolves into a
marine mammal. This evolutionary path started with one of the earliest ancestors called "Pakicetus".
A Pakicetus was discovered to be a land animal with four legs that had teeth as carnivores. It skull
structure was long, but this organism didn't look like any marine animal. The scientist then
discovered that on the skull's ear region it was surrounded by a bony wall. This feature on an
organism only was distinct from one type of species, scientist discovered that this animal
"Pakicetus" was an ancestor of a whale. By comparing the early whales Pakicetus to the next
generation of ancestors Ambulocetus, the Ambulocetus whale looks more like

Stratigraphy Of Ototoka Beach, Whanganui
Stratigraphy of Ototoka Beach, Whanganui Abstract This report aims to give an insight into the
Stratigraphic history of the formations observed at Ototoka beach, Whanganui and to apply the use
of various geological methods in examining individual sedimentary units in order to work out the
environment that would have existed at the time of their deposition millions of years ago, and
therefore we have constructed a history of environmental changes for the area over a large scale of
time, such as the rise and fall of sea level and the co–occurring increase and decrease of
temperatures as a result, which has given us a better understanding of how the planet's environments
change over time and how ours is changing at the present day. Introduction/Background We
conducted our study at Ototoka Beach in Whanganui (Figure 5). The aim of our project was to work
in groups to measure a section along the beach using pace and compass techniques whilst describing
sediments, and collecting Micro and Macro paleontology samples for further study. We combined
the data we collected on the fieldtrip with data we were given along with published literature to
form an understanding of the stratigraphic record of Ototoka Beach. Regional Formations at Ototoka
Beach (In Order): Lower Okehu Siltstone, Butler's Shell Conglomerate, Upper Maxwell Formation,
Mangahou Siltstone, Middle Maxwell Formation, Pukekiwi Shell Sand, Lower Maxwell Formation
Aswell as conducting our own personal research at Ototoka

Petroleum Geology Of The Sarir Essay
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF THE SARIR "C" FIELD, SIRTE BASIN,LIBYA
Complied by: 9606617
MSC PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER
PETROLEUM GEOLOGIC OF THE SARIR "C" FIELD
IN THE SIRTE BASIN, LIBYA
1. INTRODUCTION The Sarir 'C' oil field is a super–giant hydrocarbon field, located near the
south–eastern margin of the late Cretaceous – Tertiary Sirte Basin of Libya. The field is 56km long,
40km wide, and covers an area of about 378km2.
The Sarir "C" field is a higly prolific hydrocarbon producing field in North Africa (figure1) with an
estimated ultimate recovery of about 6.5bbl of oil in place (Carmalt et. al; 1986) It was discovered
in Southern Cyrenaica in 1961, forms part of three complex fields(fig3), and has other significant
fields like the Amal, Defa, Augila, Hateiba, Messla, Bu Atifel, lying in the same Sirte basin.
1.1 Location and Geological Setting of the Field.
LOCATION and GEOLOGIC SETTINGS The study field is located in the Sirte Basin. This Basin,
located in the north central extension of Libya, covers an area of about 500,000km2, between
latitudes 270N–330N and 160E and 220E. It is ranked 13th among the world's major hydrocarbon
provinces and contains the major hydrocarbon producing fields in Libya.
The Sarir "C" oil field is located on the western arm of the Calanscio Sand Sea in the southern
Cyrenaica. The Basin is dominated by the Tertiary Sirte–Zleten petroleum system which is
subdivided into four units, which developed from

Southern North Sea Basin Essay
Introduction The Southern North Sea basin is located between the UK and The Netherlands, being
the main gas fields in the UK, with production coming from Permian reservoirs, which are sealed by
the upper Permian salt. The development of this basin is resulted of the subsidence, which has been
punctuated by discrete events of uplift and predominant erosion in several periods such as Late
Carboniferous, Late Cretaceous, as well as at several times during the mid–Cenozoic (Cameron et
al. 1992, cited in Balson et al. 2001, p.10). Some of the episodes are not completely clear when they
occur, for instant, extensional events with different stress orientations in the Upper Jurassic. Thus,
the aim of this report is to analyse the structural and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1992). In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic subsidence in the Sole Pit Basin was connected to
reactivation of Variscan basement faults and these movements stemmed from the earliest mid–
Triassic halokinesis of the Upper Permian salts (Balson et al. 2002). However, In the early– mid
Jurassic times, differential subsidence of the Sole Pit Basin was more prominent by the development
of growth faults along the western margin of the North Sea, being that this faults account for the
major thickness and facies changes of the Lower and Middle Jurassic sediments between the Sole
Pit Basin and the East Midlands Shelf (Balson et al. 2002). Moreover, during the Jurassic times the
Sole Pit Trough and the Cleveland Basin were the principal depocenters, accumulating high
thickness of marine mudstones with subsidiary sandstones and limestones before undergoing
erosion at the end of this period, which followed by post Jurassic inversion (Cameron et al. 1992).
Nevertheless, cretaceous sediments are dominantly argillaceous and are more 800 thick adjacent to
contemporary growth fault in the Dowsing Fault Zone. On the other hand, in the Upper Cretaceous
pelagic carbonates of the chalk sea are located more than 1000 thick, and following their deposition
there was widespread uplift and regression prior to the deposition of up to 800 m of mainly
argillaceous marine sediments during the

Facts About Chandrayaan
Mission Timeline
Launch date:October22, 2008
Journey to the Moon: Five–and–a–half day geotransfer orbit
Nominal mission: Two years
About the spacecraft
The craft will be cube shapes, with a length of 1.5 meters on each side and a total mass of 1,050
kilograms.
The satellite's design is based on ISRO's Kalpansat meteorological satellite, launched in 2002. It will
also carry a 30–kilogram probe that will penetrate the lunar surface.
A 750–Watt solar panel together with a Lithium–Ion battery will supply power to the spacecraft. A
bipropellant engine will be employed to enter orbit and to maintain the spacecraft's orbit at the
Moon.
The total mission cost is Rs3.8 billion.
Orbit
Chandrayaan 1 will be launched from the Satish Dhawan ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
It was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly held on 22 July
1947, when it became the official... * To carry out imaging operations and to collect data on the
mineral content of the lunar soil
Lunar soil
Lunar soil is the fine regolith found on the surface of the Moon. Its properties can differ
significantly from those of terrestrial soil. It is essentially devoid of moisture and air, two important
components found in soil on Earth....
. * To set up a deep space tracking network
Deep Space Network and implement the operational procedures for travel into deep space.
The data collected from the mission have been disseminated to Indian scientists and also the
partners from Europe and U.S.A. for analysis
The Deep Space Network, or DSN, is an international network of large antennas and communication
facilities that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions, and radio and radar astronomy
observations for the exploration of the solar system and the universe. The DSN should not be
confused with the...

.
Award for Chandrayaan–1 *
Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy, a branch of geology, studies rock layers and layering . It is primarily used in the study
of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.... * The American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics
American

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