Chapter One provides an introduction to the field of Adult Development, with an emphasis placed on the concept that development does not occur in a vacuum, but rather is a lifelong process reflecting systematic changes that allow people to adapt to their ever-changing environment. This may sound like common sense, but it wasn't that long ago that theorists had a more "philosophical" approach to adult development and it was believed that once you hit about age 25, that was it. No more growth, no more taking in new experiences, no way to change those awful habits you have (ouch), life was pretty much at a standstill.    I.    Why Study Adult Development? A.     An Aging Population 1.         Historically speaking, it is a new and fairly recent situation to have such a large percentage of older adults in society. 2.         For Americans born in 1900, the life expectancy was 47.3 years. 3.         For those born in 1950, the life expectancy was 68.2 years. 4.         Those born in 2000 have a projected life expectancy of 76.9 years (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2007), a stunning 29.6 years longer than those born 100 years earlier. 5.         In the early 1900s, less than 5% of Americans lived to age 65 or older, whereas in 1995 the percentage had risen to 80% (Langer & Moldoveanu, 2000). 6.         The “graying” of the world’s citizens a.         In high-income, developed countries, the increased life expectancies and falling fertility rates will add momentum to the already apparent shift toward an older population. B.     Challenging Issues 1.         Introduction a.         The rapidly increasing number of adults in their 60s and beyond brings with it the demand for information from those trying to meet current needs and prepare for the future. b.         In terms of the academic study of adult development and aging, there are theoretical issues that must be considered. 2.         The Challenges a.         Accepting and utilizing the multidisciplinary nature of the study of adulthood.  b.         Finding the balance between highlighting the things younger, middle-aged, and older adults have in common and bringing to light the diversity in adult populations c.         Dealing with the limited resources available for research. II.        A Psychological Approach to Adult Development and Aging A.     Multidisciplinary and Multifaceted Endeavor 1.         The study of adult development and aging is multidisciplinary and multifaceted. 2.         Reflecting similarities and differences across disciplines as well as among areas of emphasis within disciplines B.     The Developmental Psychological Perspective 1.         Developmental psychology can be defined as the scientific study of the ways mental and behavioral processes change within individuals over time. III.      Multiple Dimensions of Age A.     Critical Differences 1.         Childhood generally covers about 12 years while adulthood can cover 60 yea.

1. Chapter One provides an introduction to the field of Adult
Development, with an emphasis placed on the concept that
development does not occur in a vacuum, but rather is a lifelong
process reflecting systematic changes that allow people to adapt
to their ever-changing environment. This may sound like
common sense, but it wasn't that long ago that theorists had a
more "philosophical" approach to adult development and it was
believed that once you hit about age 25, that was it. No more
growth, no more taking in new experiences, no way to change
those awful habits you have (ouch), life was pretty much at a
standstill.
I. Why Study Adult Development?
A. An Aging Population
1. Historically speaking, it is a new and fairly recent
situation to have such a large percentage of older adults in
society.
2. For Americans born in 1900, the life expectancy was
47.3 years.
3. For those born in 1950, the life expectancy was 68.2
years.
4. Those born in 2000 have a projected life expectancy of
76.9 years
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2007), a
stunning 29.6 years longer than those born 100 years earlier.
5. In the early 1900s, less than 5% of Americans lived to
age 65 or older, whereas in 1995 the percentage had risen to
80%
(Langer & Moldoveanu, 2000).
6. The “graying” of the world’s citizens

2. a. In high-income, developed countries, the increased life
expectancies and falling fertility rates will add momentum to
the already apparent shift toward an older population.
B. Challenging Issues
1. Introduction
a. The rapidly increasing number of adults in their 60s and
beyond brings with it the demand for information from those
trying to meet current needs and prepare for the future.
b. In terms of the academic study of adult development
and aging, there are theoretical issues that must be considered.
2. The Challenges
a. Accepting and utilizing the multidisciplinary nature of
the study of adulthood.
b. Finding the balance between highlighting the things
younger, middle-aged, and older adults have in common and
bringing to light the diversity in adult populations
c. Dealing with the limited resources available for
research.
II. A Psychological Approach to Adult Development and
Aging
A. Multidisciplinary and Multifaceted Endeavor
1. The study of adult development and aging is
multidisciplinary and multifaceted.
2. Reflecting similarities and differences across
disciplines as well as among areas of emphasis within
disciplines
B. The Developmental Psychological Perspective

3. 1. Developmental psychology can be defined as the
scientific study of the ways mental and behavioral processes
change within individuals over time.
III. Multiple Dimensions of Age
A. Critical Differences
1. Childhood generally covers about 12 years while
adulthood can cover 60 years or more
2. Segmenting Adulthood
a. Young adulthood—18-20 years old to 40-45 years old
b. Middle adulthood—40-45 years old to 60-65 years old
c. Late adulthood— 60-65 years old to end of life
3. Age Divisions serve as efficient labels for loosely-
grouped age-related
a. Roles
b. Stereotypes
c. Expectations
B. Normative age-graded influences
1. Definition: Typical events or influences with a strong
relationship to age
a. Example: typical age to start elementary school
2. Chronological age is more descriptive for children than
adults
a. Significant differences between a 3 month old and a 3
year old
b. Differences between a 43-year-old and a 53-year old
may not be as dramatic using only age as a predictor.

4. C. Functional Age
1. How an adult functions on various domains provides a
practical profile
2. DOMAINS of Functional Age
a. Biological Age—comparison of an individual’s
health, particularly vital organ systems, to others of similar
chronological age.
b. Psychological Age—comparing one’s ability to adjust
and cope with changes in the environment to others of similar
chronological age.
c. Social Age—comparing one’s social roles and
expectations to chronological age and overall functioning.
D. Age-Related Influences
1. Normative history-graded influences: influences
experienced by a culture or society at a particular point in
history that may eventually define a generation (e.g., Great
Depression, WWII)
2. Cohort: a group of people who have grown up
together and have similar normative-history graded experiences
3. Non-normative influences: chance occurrences (e.g.,
winning a large sum of money in a lottery) that may influence a
life
IV. Metatheories as Philosophies of Development
A. Introduction: Developmental psychologists have found
three metatheories useful in organizing knowledge and
designing research (worldviews or metamodels).

5. B. Mechanistic Metatheory
1. Metaphor: employs a machine metaphor
a. Human beings are machine-like in that they are
comprised of many interacting parts.
b. Goal of research is to figure out what the parts are, how
they work, and then how to manipulate them.
2. Emphasis is on the ways the environment acts on an
individual and that individual’s behavioral response.
3. Research approach: continuous, quantitative approach
4. Example: May use behavioral analysis methodology to
design a conditioning program to enhance performance. By
engaging in a practice program (training) and by competing for
an incentive, such as desirable prizes for those who remember
the most words accurately (reinforcement), it is likely that
participants’ scores will improve.
C. Organismic Metatheory
1. Metaphor: employs a biology/organism metaphor
2. Emphasizes individuals’ genetically predetermined
patterns of development, which are revealed through maturation
and influenced by stimulation from the environment
3. Development is characterized by transitions or cycles of
rapid spurts of growth or decline, and stages, periods of
stability, or plateau
4. Research approach: the discontinuous, qualitative
change inherent in stage
D. Contextual Metatheory
1. Dominant philosophy in developmental psychology
2. Provides a middle ground in emphasizing the continual
interaction of both internal and external influences
3. Baltes and his colleagues have led the way in
documenting the evolution of lifespan psychology in general,

6. and the study of adult development and aging in particular.
a. Through their work, they have found seven core
assumptions consistent with the contextual metatheoretical view
that influences current lifespan developmental theory.
(1) Development is viewed as a lifelong process.
(2) Life involves simultaneous processes of gains and lsses.
(3)Current emphasis in lifespan development theory is on the
mutlidirectionality of development.
(4) Contextualism is evident through the influences of
normative age-graded, normative history-graded and non-
normative influences for individuals.
(5) Developmental pathways possess the characteristic of
plasticity [rather than rigid or set pathways].
(6) Lifespan developmental theory is part of a
multidisciplinary study of development that includes not only
other social sciences, such as sociology and political science,
but also wider-ranging fields such as medical and biological
sciences
V. Theoretical Approaches to Adult Development and
Aging
A. Biological Theories
1. The biological theories emphasize the ways our
genetically initiated developmental processes are shaped by
external influences. In other words, these are the theories which
discuss why we might age a specific way, but remember, these
are theories.
2. Programmed theories of biological aging
a. Propose that a biological timetable controls the aging
process
b. Programmed Theory Examples
(1) The programmed longevity theory looks for

7. mechanisms that switch certain genes on and off, resulting in
deficits associated with aging.
(2) The endocrine theory involves the search for hormonal
actions that control the biological clock and speed of the aging
process.
(3) Immunological theory highlights increased
vulnerability to infections and diseases through a programmed
decline in immune system functions. Sometimes called the
immune clock, our immune system reaches its strongest during
adolescence and begins weakening after age 20.
3. Continued
a. Examine these additional, accidental, or external
influences on physiological aging
b. Error Theory Examples
(1) Wear and tear theory proposes that cells and tissues
simply wear out over time. Often referred to as cell senescence,
researchers have found that cells will, at some point, stop
proliferating.
(2) Rate of living theory highlights the simple, yet
profound, notion that organisms have a finite set of resources
and energy, and once those are used up the organism cannot
continue to live.
(3) Crosslinking theory focuses on the tendency of glucose
(blood sugar) molecules to attach themselves to proteins,
causing many further changes and reactions.
(4) Free radical theory, first proposed in the mid-1950s,
highlights the accumulated damage caused by oxygen radicals.
(5) Somatic DNA damage theory emphasizes cell
deterioration and malfunction due to genetic mutations that
accumulate with age.
B. Connectionist Approaches
1. Emphasize the role of cognitive psychology

8. 2. Propose that development involves making associations
between basic items or pieces of information, referred to as
units, in order to form a network of associations
C. Sociocultural Theories
1. Sociocultural theories focus more on the larger, external
forces that shape behavior, such as societal and cultural
expectations.
2. Sociocultural Theory Example
a. Bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner) - interactions are
represented in a hierarchical model with the inner layers
exerting a more direct impact on the individual as compared to
the outer layers. Bronfenbrenner’s notion of multiple-person
systems and multiple levels of interactions distinguish it from
other ecological models.
D. Selection, Optimization, and Compensation Theory (SOC)
1. Provides a structure around which researchers can
organize data about aging and make predictions about future
courses of action
2. Describes the ways individuals manage the gains and
losses accompanying each phase of life by selecting the best
option from realistic choices, optimizing strengths and
resources, and compensating for losses by adjusting strategies
or goals
3. SOC model is perhaps the most encompassing of the
theories – allows for many individual differences, personal
circumstances, and larger environmental influences
4. Consistent with the contextual Metatheory
VI. Scientific Study of Adult Development and Aging
A. Scientific Approach
1. Psychology relies on scientifically informed methods

9. of data collection, analysis, and interpretation in order to
provide objectivity in reporting research findings.
2. Research In-Depth: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal
Studies
a. Cross-Sectional Study: people in different ages are
tested at the same point in time and compared
b. Longitudinal Study: following the development of the
same group of people over time.
B. Ethically Sound Research
1. Among the important topics covered in the federal
guidelines for research with human participants is the
requirement of informed consent.
Assignment for Chapter 1 is in "Assignments"
Post Question #1, worth 10 points.
There are 4 theories of aging: Biological Theories,
Connectionist Approach, Sociocultural Theories, and Selection,
Optimization, and Compensation Theory (SOC). 1) Prioritize
these theories; 2) choose the one which you feel best explains
the process of aging. For this post, you must support your
position, not just discuss the theory.
Previous Previous: The Lighter Side Next Next Module: Week 2
72077570-8b6e-49c5-9b51-f066ea27b822
How to Write a Book Review
By Kori Morgan, eHow Contributor
-last updated October 16, 2014

10. Whether you've read a compelling tale of fiction or a scholarly
academic text, writing a book
review allows you to share your insights on a work of literature.
Commonly written as an
assignment for college courses, a book review goes beyond
merely summarizing the text's ideas
to evaluate the author's success in communicating a message.
Describing the primary themes,
strengths and weaknesses of a book using specific examples can
help you write a review that will
entice your audience to read it for themselves.
Give the Book's Background
o To orient readers to the book's subject matter and genre,
reviews typically begin with a summary
of its contents. Give a brief description of its plot or ideas,
being careful not to give away too
much information or spoil key parts of the action. Since your
audience might not have read the
book, you only need to provide a taste of what it's about, not a
lengthy summary. You can also
include key details about the author, including how the book fits
into his overall body of work,

11. its success in reaching its target audience and how the title of
the book gives clues about its
theme or subject.
Critique the Content
o The bulk of your review should be a discussion of the author's
ideas and writing craft. For the
most part, your evaluation will answer the question of whether
or not the book lives up to the
expectations its title, plot and genre seem to present. If you're
reviewing a work of fiction, you
might consider how the author uses character development,
tension and plot to engage audiences
with the story; if it's a biography or scholarly text, you can
discuss the position it takes on the
topic or address any significant omissions. As you evaluate,
give specific examples from the text
that illustrate its strengths and weaknesses.
Evaluate the Research
o The use of reliable, accurate sources and information can
often make or break a book's

12. credibility. If you're reviewing a scholarly text, part of your
review will focus on what references
the author uses, his research process and how well he uses
information from sources to convince
readers of his views or conclusions. You also might address
whether the book breaks new ground
in its field. Discussion of research also has its place in reviews
of fiction. For example, if you're
reviewing a novel set in a particular historical era, you can
write about how well or how poorly
the author creates a believable context for the fictional events.
Give Concluding Comments
o Book reviews frequently conclude with a summary of the
article's main ideas, with a particular
focus on what audiences will most gain from reading it. If
you're reviewing a scholarly text or
work of nonfiction, you might discuss whether it would be most
appropriate for readers who are
new to the subject or established experts in the field. If the
book is a novel or collection of
stories, you can talk about the strength of the story and its
ability to emotionally affect readers.
End the piece by restating your overall evaluation of the book.

13. Read more : http://www.ehow.com/how_172554_write-book-
review.html
http://www.ehow.com/how_172554_write-book-review.html