Masaccio, Trinity, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, 1426-27.docx

Masaccio, Trinity, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, 1426-27
Often credited with being the first painting employing
scientific, single-point perspective—discovered by Brunelleschi
only a few years earlier—looks like actual space that recedes—
at center of fresco we see Holy Trinity—body of Christ, dove,
and God the Father—head of dove looks down at Christ—
incredible rendering of human body—pulled, tortured, affected
by gravity—what happens to muscles of body—evokes
sympathy (hollow of abdomen), bleeding—deep
—on left Mary points
towards Christ, holds out hand (way to salvation)—on right St.
John—donors on lower level—at bottom exposed tomb—
inscription reads ‘As I am now, so you shall be. As you are
now, so once was I.’—memento mori—imminence of death—
reminder of death, prepare now for salvation—eternal life in
Heaven—innovation of new perspective—specific viewpoint for
viewer—architecture based on ancient Greek and Roman
architecture—Masaccio shows off—not simple tile floor—
modeling to show dimension, sculptural relief—proportional
accuracy of the bodies—culture of trade in Florence—buy/sell,
fractions, space volumes, analytic and rational culture
Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights, c. 1500

Investigation of the
Ferguson Police Department
United States Department of Justice
Civil Rights Division
March 4, 2015
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. REPORT SUMMARY
...............................................................................................
......... 1
II. BACKGROUND
...............................................................................................
................... 6
III. FERGUSON LAW ENFORCEMENT EFFORTS ARE
FOCUSED ON
GENERATING REVENUE
...............................................................................................

9
IV. FERGUSON LAW ENFORCEMENT PRACTICES
VIOLATE THE LAW AND
UNDERMINE COMMUNITY TRUST, ESPECIALLY AMONG
AFRICAN
AMERICANS
...............................................................................................
..................... 15
A. Ferguson’s Police Practices
............................................................................................
15
1. FPD Engages in a Pattern of Unconstitutional Stops and
Arrests in Violation
of the Fourth Amendment
..................................................................................... 16
2. FPD Engages in a Pattern of First Amendment Violations
.................................. 24
3. FPD Engages in a Pattern of Excessive Force in Violation of
the Fourth
Amendment
...............................................................................................
............ 28
B. Ferguson’s Municipal Court Practices
........................................................................... 42
1. Court Practices Impose Substantial and Unnecessary Barriers
to the
Challenge or Resolution of Municipal Code Violations
....................................... 43
2. The Court Imposes Unduly Harsh Penalties for Missed
Payments or

Appearances
...............................................................................................
........... 54
C. Ferguson Law Enforcement Practices Disproportionately
Harm Ferguson’s
African-American Residents and Are Driven in Part by Racial
Bias ............................ 62
1. Ferguson’s Law Enforcement Actions Impose a Disparate
Impact on African
Americans that Violates Federal Law
................................................................... 63
2. Ferguson’s Law Enforcement Practices Are Motivated in Part
by
Discriminatory Intent in Violation of the Fourteenth
Amendment and Other
Federal Laws
...............................................................................................
.......... 70
D. Ferguson Law Enforcement Practices Erode Community
Trust, Especially Among
Ferguson’s African-American Residents, and Make Policing
Less Effective, More
Difficult, and Less Safe
...............................................................................................
... 79
1. Ferguson’s Unlawful Police and Court Practices Have Led to
Distrust and
Resentment Among Many in Ferguson
................................................................ 79
2. FPD’s Exercise of Discretion, Even When Lawful, Often

Undermines
Community Trust and Public Safety
..................................................................... 81
3. FPD’s Failure to Respond to Complaints of Officer
Misconduct Further
Erodes Community Trust
...................................................................................... 82
4. FPD’s Lack of Community Engagement Increases the
Likelihood of
Discriminatory Policing and Damages Public Trust
............................................. 86
ii
5. Ferguson’s Lack of a Diverse Police Force Further
Undermines Community
Trust
...............................................................................................
....................... 88
V. CHANGES NECESSARY TO REMEDY FERGUSON’S
UNLAWFUL LAW
ENFORCEMENT PRACTICES AND REPAIR COMMUNITY
TRUST ................. 90
VI. CONCLUSION
...............................................................................................
................. 102

1
I. REPORT SUMMARY
The Civil Rights Division of the United States Department of
Justice opened its
investigation of the Ferguson Police Department (“FPD”) on
September 4, 2014. This
investigation was initiated under the pattern-or-practice
provision of the Violent Crime Control
and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, 42 U.S.C. § 14141, the
Omnibus Crime Control and Safe
Streets Act of 1968, 42 U.S.C. § 3789d (“Safe Streets Act”),
and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act
of 1964, 42 U.S.C. § 2000d (“Title VI”). This investigation has
revealed a pattern or practice of
unlawful conduct within the Ferguson Police Department that
violates the First, Fourth, and
Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution, and
federal statutory law.
Over the course of the investigation, we interviewed City
officials, including City
Manager John Shaw, Mayor James Knowles, Chief of Police
Thomas Jackson, Municipal Judge
Ronald Brockmeyer, the Municipal Court Clerk, Ferguson’s
Finance Director, half of FPD’s
sworn officers, and others. We spent, collectively,
approximately 100 person-days onsite in
Ferguson. We participated in ride-alongs with on-duty officers,
reviewed over 35,000 pages of

police records as well as thousands of emails and other
electronic materials provided by the
police department. Enlisting the assistance of statistical
experts, we analyzed FPD’s data on
stops, searches, citations, and arrests, as well as data collected
by the municipal court. We
observed four separate sessions of Ferguson Municipal Court,
interviewing dozens of people
charged with local offenses, and we reviewed third-party studies
regarding municipal court
practices in Ferguson and St. Louis County more broadly. As in
all of our investigations, we
sought to engage the local community, conducting hundreds of
in-person and telephone
interviews of individuals who reside in Ferguson or who have
had interactions with the police
department. We contacted ten neighborhood associations and
met with each group that
responded to us, as well as several other community groups and
advocacy organizations.
Throughout the investigation, we relied on two police chiefs
who accompanied us to Ferguson
and who themselves interviewed City and police officials, spoke
with community members, and
reviewed FPD policies and incident reports.
We thank the City officials and the rank-and-file officers who
have cooperated with this
investigation and provided us with insights into the operation of
the police department, including
the municipal court. Notwithstanding our findings about
Ferguson’s approach to law
enforcement and the policing culture it creates, we found many
Ferguson police officers and

other City employees to be dedicated public servants striving
each day to perform their duties
lawfully and with respect for all members of the Ferguson
community. The importance of their
often-selfless work cannot be overstated.
We are also grateful to the many members of the Ferguson
community who have met
with us to share their experiences. It became clear during our
many conversations with Ferguson
residents from throughout the City that many residents, black
and white, genuinely embrace
Ferguson’s diversity and want to reemerge from the events of
recent months a truly inclusive,
united community. This Report is intended to strengthen those
efforts by recognizing the harms
caused by Ferguson’s law enforcement practices so that those
harms can be better understood
and overcome.
2
Ferguson’s law enforcement practices are shaped by the City’s
focus on revenue rather

than by public safety needs. This emphasis on revenue has
compromised the institutional
character of Ferguson’s police department, contributing to a
pattern of unconstitutional policing,
and has also shaped its municipal court, leading to procedures
that raise due process concerns
and inflict unnecessary harm on members of the Ferguson
community. Further, Ferguson’s
police and municipal court practices both reflect and exacerbate
existing racial bias, including
racial stereotypes. Ferguson’s own data establish clear racial
disparities that adversely impact
African Americans. The evidence shows that discriminatory
intent is part of the reason for these
disparities. Over time, Ferguson’s police and municipal court
practices have sown deep mistrust
between parts of the community and the police department,
undermining law enforcement
legitimacy among African Americans in particular.
Focus on Generating Revenue
The City budgets for sizeable increases in municipal fines and
fees each year, exhorts
police and court staff to deliver those revenue increases, and
closely monitors whether those
increases are achieved. City officials routinely urge Chief
Jackson to generate more revenue
through enforcement. In March 2010, for instance, the City
Finance Director wrote to Chief
Jackson that “unless ticket writing ramps up significantly before
the end of the year, it will be
hard to significantly raise collections next year. . . . Given that
we are looking at a substantial
sales tax shortfall, it’s not an insignificant issue.” Similarly, in
March 2013, the Finance

Director wrote to the City Manager: “Court fees are anticipated
to rise about 7.5%. I did ask the
Chief if he thought the PD could deliver 10% increase. He
indicated they could try.” The
importance of focusing on revenue generation is communicated
to FPD officers. Ferguson
police officers from all ranks told us that revenue generation is
stressed heavily within the police
department, and that the message comes from City leadership.
The evidence we reviewed
supports this perception.
Police Practices
The City’s emphasis on revenue generation has a profound
effect on FPD’s approach to
law enforcement. Patrol assignments and schedules are geared
toward aggressive enforcement
of Ferguson’s municipal code, with insufficient thought given to
whether enforcement strategies
promote public safety or unnecessarily undermine community
trust and cooperation. Officer
evaluations and promotions depend to an inordinate degree on
“productivity,” meaning the
number of citations issued. Partly as a consequence of City and
FPD priorities, many officers
appear to see some residents, especially those who live in
Ferguson’s predominantly African-
American neighborhoods, less as constituents to be protected
than as potential offenders and
sources of revenue.
This culture within FPD influences officer activities in all
areas of policing, beyond just
ticketing. Officers expect and demand compliance even when
they lack legal authority. They

are inclined to interpret the exercise of free-speech rights as
unlawful disobedience, innocent
movements as physical threats, indications of mental or physical
illness as belligerence. Police
supervisors and leadership do too little to ensure that officers
act in accordance with law and
policy, and rarely respond meaningfully to civilian complaints
of officer misconduct. The result
is a pattern of stops without reasonable suspicion and arrests
without probable cause in violation
of the Fourth Amendment; infringement on free expression, as
well as retaliation for protected
3
expression, in violation of the First Amendment; and excessive
force in violation of the Fourth
Amendment.

Even relatively routine misconduct by Ferguson police officers
can have significant
consequences for the people whose rights are violated. For
example, in the summer of 2012, a
32-year-old African-American man sat in his car cooling off
after playing basketball in a
Ferguson public park. An officer pulled up behind the man’s
car, blocking him in, and
demanded the man’s Social Security number and identification.
Without any cause, the officer
accused the man of being a pedophile, referring to the presence
of children in the park, and
ordered the man out of his car for a pat-down, although the
officer had no reason to believe the
man was armed. The officer also asked to search the man’s car.
The man objected, citing his
constitutional rights. In response, the officer arrested the man,
reportedly at gunpoint, charging
him with eight violations of Ferguson’s municipal code. One
charge, Making a False
Declaration, was for initially providing the short form of his
first name (e.g., “Mike” instead of
“Michael”), and an address which, although legitimate, was
different from the one on his driver’s
license. Another charge was for not wearing a seat belt, even
though he was seated in a parked
car. The officer also charged the man both with having an
expired operator’s license, and with
having no operator’s license in his possession. The man told us
that, because of these charges,
he lost his job as a contractor with the federal government that
he had held for years.
Municipal Court Practices

Ferguson has allowed its focus on revenue generation to
fundamentally compromise the
role of Ferguson’s municipal court. The municipal court does
not act as a neutral arbiter of the
law or a check on unlawful police conduct. Instead, the court
primarily uses its judicial authority
as the means to compel the payment of fines and fees that
advance the City’s financial interests.
This has led to court practices that violate the Fourteenth
Amendment’s due process and equal
protection requirements. The court’s practices also impose
unnecessary harm, overwhelmingly
on African-American individuals, and run counter to public
safety.
Most strikingly, the court issues municipal arrest warrants not
on the basis of public
safety needs, but rather as a routine response to missed court
appearances and required fine
payments. In 2013 alone, the court issued over 9,000 warrants
on cases stemming in large part
from minor violations such as parking infractions, traffic
tickets, or housing code violations. Jail
time would be considered far too harsh a penalty for the great
majority of these code violations,
yet Ferguson’s municipal court routinely issues warrants for
people to be arrested and
incarcerated for failing to timely pay related fines and fees.
Under state law, a failure to appear
in municipal court on a traffic charge involving a moving
violation also results in a license
suspension. Ferguson has made this penalty even more onerous
by only allowing the suspension
to be lifted after payment of an owed fine is made in full.
Further, until recently, Ferguson also
added charges, fines, and fees for each missed appearance and

payment. Many pending cases
still include such charges that were imposed before the court
recently eliminated them, making it
as difficult as before for people to resolve these cases.
The court imposes these severe penalties for missed
appearances and payments even as
several of the court’s practices create unnecessary barriers to
resolving a municipal violation.
The court often fails to provide clear and accurate information
regarding a person’s charges or
court obligations. And the court’s fine assessment procedures
do not adequately provide for a
defendant to seek a fine reduction on account of financial
incapacity or to seek alternatives to
4

payment such as community service. City and court officials
have adhered to these court
practices despite acknowledging their needlessly harmful
consequences. In August 2013, for
example, one City Councilmember wrote to the City Manager,
the Mayor, and other City
officials lamenting the lack of a community service option and
noted the benefits of such a
program, including that it would “keep those people that simply
don’t have the money to pay
their fines from constantly being arrested and going to jail, only
to be released and do it all over
again.”
Together, these court practices exacerbate the harm of
Ferguson’s unconstitutional police
practices. They impose a particular hardship upon Ferguson’s
most vulnerable residents,
especially upon those living in or near poverty. Minor offenses
can generate crippling debts,
result in jail time because of an inability to pay, and result in
the loss of a driver’s license,
employment, or housing.
We spoke, for example, with an African-American woman who
has a still-pending case
stemming from 2007, when, on a single occasion, she parked
her car illegally. She received two
citations and a $151 fine, plus fees. The woman, who
experienced financial difficulties and
periods of homelessness over several years, was charged with
seven Failure to Appear offenses
for missing court dates or fine payments on her parking tickets
between 2007 and 2010. For
each Failure to Appear, the court issued an arrest warrant and
imposed new fines and fees. From

2007 to 2014, the woman was arrested twice, spent six days in
jail, and paid $550 to the court for
the events stemming from this single instance of illegal parking.
Court records show that she
twice attempted to make partial payments of $25 and $50, but
the court returned those payments,
refusing to accept anything less than payment in full. One of
those payments was later accepted,
but only after the court’s letter rejecting payment by money
order was returned as undeliverable.
This woman is now making regular payments on the fine. As of
December 2014, over seven
years later, despite initially owing a $151 fine and having
already paid $550, she still owed $541.
Racial Bias
Ferguson’s approach to law enforcement both reflects and
reinforces racial bias,
including stereotyping. The harms of Ferguson’s police and
court practices are borne
disproportionately by African Americans, and there is evidence
that this is due in part to
intentional discrimination on the basis of race.
Ferguson’s law enforcement practices overwhelmingly impact
African Americans. Data
collected by the Ferguson Police Department from 2012 to 2014
shows that African Americans
account for 85% of vehicle stops, 90% of citations, and 93% of
arrests made by FPD officers,
despite comprising only 67% of Ferguson’s population. African
Americans are more than twice
as likely as white drivers to be searched during vehicle stops
even after controlling for non-race
based variables such as the reason the vehicle stop was

initiated, but are found in possession of
contraband 26% less often than white drivers, suggesting
officers are impermissibly considering
race as a factor when determining whether to search. African
Americans are more likely to be
cited and arrested following a stop regardless of why the stop
was initiated and are more likely to
receive multiple citations during a single incident. From 2012
to 2014, FPD issued four or more
citations to African Americans on 73 occasions, but issued four
or more citations to non-African
Americans only twice. FPD appears to bring certain offenses
almost exclusively against African
Americans. For example, from 2011 to 2013, African
Americans accounted for 95% of Manner
of Walking in Roadway charges, and 94% of all Failure to
Comply charges. Notably, with
5
respect to speeding charges brought by FPD, the evidence shows
not only that African
Americans are represented at disproportionately high rates
overall, but also that the disparate

impact of FPD’s enforcement practices on African Americans is
48% larger when citations are
issued not on the basis of radar or laser, but by some other
method, such as the officer’s own
visual assessment.
These disparities are also present in FPD’s use of force.
Nearly 90% of documented
force used by FPD officers was used against African Americans.
In every canine bite incident
for which racial information is available, the person bitten was
African American.
Municipal court practices likewise cause disproportionate harm
to African Americans.
African Americans are 68% less likely than others to have their
cases dismissed by the court, and
are more likely to have their cases last longer and result in more
required court encounters.
African Americans are at least 50% more likely to have their
cases lead to an arrest warrant, and
accounted for 92% of cases in which an arrest warrant was
issued by the Ferguson Municipal
Court in 2013. Available data show that, of those actually
arrested by FPD only because of an
outstanding municipal warrant, 96% are African American.
Our investigation indicates that this disproportionate burden on
African Americans
cannot be explained by any difference in the rate at which
people of different races violate the
law. Rather, our investigation has revealed that these
disparities occur, at least in part, because
of unlawful bias against and stereotypes about African
Americans. We have found substantial
evidence of racial bias among police and court staff in

Ferguson. For example, we discovered
emails circulated by police supervisors and court staff that
stereotype racial minorities as
criminals, including one email that joked about an abortion by
an African-American woman
being a means of crime control.
City officials have frequently asserted that the harsh and
disparate results of Ferguson’s
law enforcement system do not indicate problems with police or
court practices, but instead
reflect a pervasive lack of “personal responsibility” among
“certain segments” of the community.
Our investigation has found that the practices about which area
residents have complained are in
fact unconstitutional and unduly harsh. But the City’s personal-
responsibility refrain is telling:
it reflects many of the same racial stereotypes found in the
emails between police and court
supervisors. This evidence of bias and stereotyping, together
with evidence that Ferguson has
long recognized but failed to correct the consistent racial
disparities caused by its police and
court practices, demonstrates that the discriminatory effects of
Ferguson’s conduct are driven at
least in part by discriminatory intent in violation of the
Fourteenth Amendment.
Community Distrust
Since the August 2014 shooting death of Michael Brown, the
lack of trust between the
Ferguson Police Department and a significant portion of
Ferguson’s residents, especially African
Americans, has become undeniable. The causes of this distrust
and division, however, have been

the subject of debate. Police and other City officials, as well as
some Ferguson residents, have
insisted to us that the public outcry is attributable to “outside
agitators” who do not reflect the
opinions of “real Ferguson residents.” That view is at odds
with the facts we have gathered
during our investigation. Our investigation has shown that
distrust of the Ferguson Police
Department is longstanding and largely attributable to
Ferguson’s approach to law enforcement.
This approach results in patterns of unnecessarily aggressive
and at times unlawful policing;
6
reinforces the harm of discriminatory stereotypes; discourages a
culture of accountability; and
neglects community engagement. In recent years, FPD has
moved away from the modest
community policing efforts it previously had implemented,

reducing opportunities for positive
police-community interactions, and losing the little familiarity
it had with some African-
American neighborhoods. The confluence of policing to raise
revenue and racial bias thus has
resulted in practices that not only violate the Constitution and
cause direct harm to the
individuals whose rights are violated, but also undermine
community trust, especially among
many African Americans. As a consequence of these practices,
law enforcement is seen as
illegitimate, and the partnerships necessary for public safety
are, in some areas, entirely absent.
Restoring trust in law enforcement will require recognition of
the harms caused by
Ferguson’s law enforcement practices, and diligent, committed
collaboration with the entire
Ferguson community. At the conclusion of this report, we have
broadly identified the changes
that are necessary for meaningful and sustainable reform.
These measures build upon a number
of other recommended changes we communicated verbally to
the Mayor, Police Chief, and City
Manager in September so that Ferguson could begin
immediately to address problems as we
identified them. As a result of those recommendations, the City
and police department have
already begun to make some changes to municipal court and
police practices. We commend City
officials for beginning to take steps to address some of the
concerns we have already raised.
Nonetheless, these changes are only a small part of the reform
necessary. Addressing the deeply
embedded constitutional deficiencies we found demands an
entire reorientation of law

enforcement in Ferguson. The City must replace revenue-driven
policing with a system
grounded in the principles of community policing and police
legitimacy, in which people are
equally protected and treated with compassion, regardless of
race.
II. BACKGROUND
The City of Ferguson is one of 89 municipalities in St. Louis
County, Missouri.1
According to United States Census Data from 2010, Ferguson is
home to roughly 21,000
residents.2 While Ferguson’s total population has stayed
relatively constant in recent decades,
Ferguson’s racial demographics have changed dramatically
during that time. In 1990, 74% of
Ferguson’s population was white, while 25% was black.3 By
2000, African Americans became
the new majority, making up 52% of the City’s population.4
According to the 2010 Census, the
black population in Ferguson has grown to 67%, whereas the
white population has decreased to
29%.5 According to the 2009-2013 American Community
Survey, 25% of the City’s population
lives below the federal poverty level.6
1 See 2012 Census of Governments, U.S. Census Bureau (Sept.
2013), available at
http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/COG/2012/ORG1
3.ST05P?slice=GEO~0400000US29 (last visited
Feb. 26, 2015).
2 See 2010 Census, U.S. Census Bureau (2010), available at
http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_SF1/QT
P3/1600000US2923986 (last visited Feb. 26, 2015).

3 See 1990 Census of Population General Population
Characteristics Missouri, U.S. Census Bureau (Apr. 1992),
available at
ftp://ftp2.census.gov/library/publications/1992/dec/cp-1-27.pdf
(last visited Feb. 26, 2015).
4 See Race Alone or in Combination: 2000, U.S. Census
Bureau (2000), available at http://factfinder.census.gov/
bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/00_SF1/QTP5/1600000US2923986 (last
visited Feb. 26, 2015).
5 2010 Census, supra note 2.
6 See Poverty Status in the Past 12 Months 2009-2013
American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, U.S. Census
Bureau (2014), available at
7
Residents of Ferguson elect a Mayor and six individuals to
serve on a City Council. The
City Council appoints a City Manager to an indefinite term,
subject to removal by a Council
vote. See Ferguson City Charter § 4.1. The City Manager
serves as chief executive and
administrative officer of the City of Ferguson, and is

responsible for all affairs of the City. The
City Manager directs and supervises all City departments,
including the Ferguson Police
Department.
The current Chief of Police, Thomas Jackson, has commanded
the police department
since he was appointed by the City Manager in 2010. The
department has a total of 54 sworn
officers divided among several divisions. The patrol division is
the largest division; 28 patrol
officers are supervised by four sergeants, two lieutenants, and a
captain. Each of the four patrol
squads has a canine officer. While all patrol officers engage in
traffic enforcement, FPD also has
a dedicated traffic officer responsible for collecting traffic stop
data required by the state of
Missouri. FPD has two School Resource Officers (“SROs”),
one who is assigned to the McCluer
South-Berkeley High School and one who is assigned to the
Ferguson Middle School. FPD has
a single officer assigned to be the “Community Resource
Officer,” who attends community
meetings, serves as FPD’s public relations liaison, and is
charged with collecting crime data.
FPD operates its own jail, which has ten individual cells and a
large holding cell. The jail is
staffed by three non-sworn correctional officers. Of the 54
sworn officers currently serving in
FPD, four are African American.
FPD officers are authorized to initiate charges—by issuing
citations or summonses, or by
making arrests—under both the municipal code and state law.
Ferguson’s municipal code
addresses nearly every aspect of civic life for those who live in

Ferguson, and regulates the
conduct of all who work, travel through, or otherwise visit the
City. In addition to mirroring
some non-felony state …
2
3
4
5
Police in America
6
Police in America
Steven G. Brandl
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

7
FOR INFORMATION:
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Brandl, Steven G. (Steven Gerard), author.
Title: Police in America / Steven G. Brandl, University of
Wisconsin—Milwaukee.
Description: Thousand Oaks : Sage, [2018] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016044463 | ISBN 9781483379135 (pbk. :
alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Police—United States. | Law enforcement—
United States. |

Police administration—United States.
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https://lccn.loc.gov/2016044463
Brief Contents
Preface
About the Author
PART I. FOUNDATIONS FOR THE STUDY OF THE POLICE
Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Police in America
Chapter 2: The History of the Police in America
Chapter 3: The Characteristics and Structure of Police
Organizations
Chapter 4: The Role of the Police
PART II. POLICE WORK
Chapter 5: Police Recruitment, Selection, and Training
Chapter 6: Police Patrol
Chapter 7: Crime Detection and Investigation
Chapter 8: Police Discretion and Its Control
Chapter 9: The Law of Search, Seizure, and Self-Incrimination
PART III. THE HAZARDS OF POLICE WORK
Chapter 10: Health and Safety Issues in Police Work
Chapter 11: Police Use of Force
Chapter 12: Police Misconduct and Corruption
PART IV. POLICE STRATEGIES AND THE FUTURE OF THE
POLICE IN AMERICA
Chapter 13: Community and Problem-Oriented Policing
Chapter 14: Evidence-Based and Intelligence-Led Policing
Chapter 15: Terrorism, Technology, Accountability, and the
Future of American Policing
Appendix: The Bill of Rights, United States Constitution
Glossary

Endnotes
Index
10
Detailed Contents
Preface
About the Author
I. Foundations for the Study of the Police
Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Police in America
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Introduction
Police Spotlight: What It Takes to Be a Good Police Officer
A Question to Consider 1.1: Why Such Strong Feelings about
the Police?
The Challenge of Policing a Free Society
Police Accountability in a Free Society
A Question to Consider 1.2: Police Power and Crime Solving
The Controversies and Difficulties of Policing
The Police Are Expected to Prevent and Solve Crime
The Police Pay More Attention to Some Crimes, Some People,
and Some Areas than
Others
The Police Have Other Responsibilities
The Police Use Discretion in Dealing with People
The Police Have Authority to Use Force When Dealing with
Citizens
Measuring Good Policing Is Difficult

Technology on the Job: Police Body-Worn Cameras
The Media Do Not Necessarily Accurately Represent the Police
Good Policing: Higher Standards and Visibility
Research Spotlight: Media, Police Misconduct, and Attitudes
toward the Police
Ethics and Morals in Policing
Forms of Unethical Conduct
A Question of Ethics: What Police Actions Constitute Unethical
Police Conduct?
• Main Points
• Important Terms
• Questions for Discussion and Review
• Fact or Fiction Answers
Chapter 2: The History of the Police in America
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Introduction: Why Study the History of the Police?
Police Spotlight: Policing in the Early Days
The Pre-Police Era in America
11
Constables and the Watch
A Question to Consider 2.1: Reflections of the Watch in
Policing Today
Slave Patrols
A Question to Consider 2.2: The Historical Roots of Police-
Minority Conflict
The Sheriff

The First American Police Departments: The Political Era of
Policing
The Industrial Revolution and the Creation of Cities
The Abolishment of Slavery
A Question to Consider 2.3: Reflections of the Military in
Policing Today
The London Metropolitan Police Department as a Role Model
Diversity in the Political Era of Policing
The Role of the Police during the Political Era
A Question of Ethics: Changes in Ethical Standards
Criminal Investigations during the Political Era
Technology on the Job: The Police Baton
Early 1900s to 1960s: The Reform Era of Policing
Reform as Anti-Politics
The Creation of Federal and State Law Enforcement Agencies
Detectives as the Ultimate Professionals
Good Policing: The Ideas of August Vollmer and O. W. Wilson
A Question to Consider 2.4: The Underrepresentation of Racial
Minorities in Policing
The Reform Era and (Lack of) Diversity in Police Departments
Then the 1960s Happened
The 1970s to the Present: The Community Problem-Solving Era
of Policing
Community and Problem-Oriented Policing
Research Spotlight: The Conclusions of the National Academy
of Sciences
The Community Problem-Solving Era of Today and Beyond

• Main Points
• Important Terms
Chapter 3: The Characteristics and Structure of Police
Organizations
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Characteristics of Police Organizations
Police Spotlight: Local Control of Police Departments and the
Possibility of Unequal
Policing
Police Agencies as Bureaucracies
A Division of Labor
A Hierarchy of Authority
12
Rules
Impersonal Relationships
Selection and Promotion Based on Competence
The Drawbacks of Bureaucracy
Police Agencies as Quasi-Military Organizations
A Question of Ethics: The Quasi-Military Police and the War on
Crime
Police Agencies as Monopolies
Police Agencies as Street-Level Bureaucracies
The Challenges of Managing Police Organizations

The Management of Discretion
Street Cops versus Management Cops
Constant Resource Constraints and Demand for Services
Good Policing: Positive Police-Citizen Interactions
A Question to Consider 3.1: The Means and Ends of Policing
Ambiguous and Difficult-to-Achieve Goals
The Structure of Police Departments
Research Spotlight: Police Department Size and the
Representation of Female Officers
Technology on the Job: Police Department Size and Technology
The Structure of Three Police Departments of Different Sizes
Major Operating Units in Police Departments
Patrol
Traffic
Criminal Investigation
Tactical Enforcement
Youth or Juvenile Bureau
Communications
Internal Affairs
Crime Analysis
Types and Levels of Law Enforcement Agencies
Local Police
County Sheriff’s Departments
State Law Enforcement Agencies
Special Jurisdiction Law Enforcement Agencies
A Question to Consider 3.2: The Characteristics of Your
Campus Police Department
Federal Law Enforcement Agencies
• Main Points

• Important Terms
Chapter 4: The Role of the Police
13
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Enforcing the Law
Police Spotlight: Some of the Ridiculous Problems Police Are
Asked to Solve
Giving Meaning to the Law
Implementing the Law
The Controversy of Law Enforcement
Time Spent on Law Enforcement Activities
Controlling Crime
The Controversy of Crime Control
A Question of Ethics: Are Police Undercover Strategies Ethical?
Research Spotlight: The Value and Consequences of Pedestrian
Stops by the Police
The Difficulty of Crime Control
Police Lack Control over Conditions of Crime
Good Policing: The Difficulties of Measuring Crime Control
and Police Effectiveness
The Difficulties of Deterring Criminal Behavior
Research Spotlight: Morality, Deterrence, and Sexual Offending

Dealing with Situations Where Force May Need to Be Used
A Question to Consider 4.1: Does the Authority to Use Force
Really Make the Police
Unique?
Technology on the Job: The Continuum of Force, OC Spray, and
Tasers
Handling Time-Pressing Situations
Balancing Law Enforcement, Order Maintenance, and Public
Service
• Main Points
• Important Terms
II. Police Work
Chapter 5: Police Recruitment, Selection, and Training
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Police Spotlight: The Importance of Patrol Officers in Police
Organizations
The Relationship between the Recruitment, Selection, and
Training of Police Officers
Diversity Begins with Recruitment and Selection
A Question to Consider 5.1: The Value and Challenges of
Diversity in Police Departments
The Recruitment of Police Officers
A Question to Consider 5.2: Do You Want to Be a Police
Officer?
Motivations for Being a Police Officer
Recruitment Strategies and Plans
Job Benefits and Recruitment Efforts

14
Salary
Other Benefits and Policies
Job Requirements and Selection Standards
The Selection of Police Officers
The Permanence of Selection Decisions
Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Laws and Diversity
Affirmative Action
A Question of Ethics: Hiring Decisions and Affirmative Action
Minimum Qualifications for Police Officers
Education
Criminal Record and Drug Use
Selection Procedures for Police Officers
Good Policing: Characteristics of an Ideal Police Officer
Written Tests
Oral Interview
Background Investigation
Medical Examination
Physical Fitness Examination
Psychological Examination
Assessment Center
The Outcomes of the Recruitment and Selection of Police
Officers: Diversity
The Representation of Women as Police Officers
The Representation of Racial Minorities as Police Officers
The Representation of Gay and Lesbian Police Officers

Police Officer Training
Academy Training
Field Training
Research Spotlight: Identifying Good Cops Early: Predicting
Recruit Performance in the
Academy
In-Service Training
Good Policing: Training for the De-escalation of Potentially
Violent Incidents
Technology on the Job: Use of Force Training Simulators
• Main Points
• Important Terms
Exhibit 5.3 Answers
Chapter 6: Police Patrol
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
15
Police Patrol and Call Priority
Police Spotlight: The Reemergence of Foot Patrol
A Question to Consider 6.1: The Value of Police Patrol
Allocation of Police Patrol
Call Priority
Technology on the Job: Mobile Data Computers (MDCs) and
Computer-Aided Dispatch

(CAD)
Managing Calls for Service
311
Differential Police Response (DPR)
Preventive Patrol
Outcomes of Preventive Patrol
Apprehension through Fast Police Response
Research Spotlight: Police Response Time and In-Progress
Burglaries
Crime Reduction through Deterrence: The Kansas City
Preventive Patrol Experiment
Hot Spot Policing
The Kansas City Hot Spot Patrol Experiment (KCHSPE)
Preventive Patrol versus Hot Spot Patrol
Other Issues Associated with Hot Spot Patrol
Police Crackdowns
Elements and Operation of a Crackdown
Police Stops of Citizens as a Strategy
A Question of Ethics: The Ethics of “Get Tough” Tactics
Traffic Stops
Stopping, Questioning, and Frisking
Good Policing: Anticipating the Unintended Consequences of
Police Strategies
One- and Two-Officer Squads
A Question to Consider 6.2: One-Officer versus Two-Officer
Squads
Foot Patrol

Research on Foot Patrol
Offender-Focused Strategies
• Main Points
• Important Terms
Chapter 7: Crime Detection and Investigation
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Criminal Investigation Defined
Police Spotlight: Cold Case and DNA
16
Types of Criminal Investigations
Reactive Investigations
Cold Case Investigations
Undercover Investigations
A Question of Ethics: Deception and Miranda Rights
Proof in Criminal Investigations
How Are Crimes Solved?
Forms and Types of Evidence in Criminal Investigations
Forms of Criminal Evidence
Types of Evidence Used to Solve Crimes
Physical Evidence, Biological Evidence, and DNA
Information from Witnesses and Victims
Research Spotlight: The Value of Forensic Evidence in Criminal
Investigations

Technology on the Job: CODIS
Good Policing: Guidelines for the Proper Collection of
Eyewitness Identifications
Information from Perpetrators: Interrogations and Confessions
A Question to Consider 7.1: Police Deception
Crime Scene Profiling
Information from the Public
Confidential Informants
Gang Intelligence
Crime Analysis
Electronic Databases and Information Networks
Computers and Other Electronic Devices
Social Networking and Other Internet Sites
• Main Points
• Important Terms
Chapter 8: Police Discretion and Its Control
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Discretion Defined
Police Spotlight: Ethics, Policy, and Discretion
Discretion about What?
The Anatomy of a Decision
Potential Problems with Police Discretion
The Necessity of Discretion
Factors That Influence the Discretion of Police Officers
Officer Characteristics

17
Race and Other Suspect Characteristics
Research Spotlight: The Effects of Higher Education on Police
Behavior
A Question to Consider 8.1: Police Behavior and Higher
Education
Victim Characteristics
Offense Characteristics
Neighborhood Characteristics
Organizational Culture
Training, Supervision, and Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs)
Legal Factors
Community and Political Factors
How Is Police Discretion Best Controlled?
Organizational Rules and Standard Operating Procedures
Enhancing Professional Judgment through the Selection of
Officers
Good Policing: The Importance of Passion and Perspective for
Police Officers
A Question to Consider 8.2: Personal Qualities of Police
Officers
Police Department Transparency
Technology on the Job: Police Body-Worn Cameras
Cultural Values and Ethical Standards of Conduct
A Question of Ethics: Law Enforcement Code of Ethics
A Question of Ethics: A Difficult Ethical Situation
• Main Points

• Important Terms
Chapter 9: The Law of Search, Seizure, and Self-Incrimination
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Police Spotlight: Arizona v. Gant (2009)
Basic Legal Terminology and Concepts
Standards of Proof and Probable Cause
Arrest, Custody, Stops, and Encounters
Arrest Warrant
Search
Search Warrant
Chain of Custody
The Law of Search and Seizure: The Fourth Amendment
Technology on the Job: GPS and United States v. Jones (2013)
Reasonable Expectation of Privacy
A Question to Consider 9.1: The Value of Privacy
The Search Warrant and Its Exceptions
18
Exigent Circumstances
Vehicle Exception
Hot-Pursuit Exception
Other Places and Things Exception
Search Incident to Arrest Exception
Stop and Frisk Exception
Plain View Exception

Consent Search Exception
Good Policing: Legal Knock and Talk Searches
The Exclusionary Rule
The Impact of the Exclusionary Rule
A Question of Ethics: Necessary Means to Achieve the Desired
Ends?
The Law of Self-Incrimination: The Fifth and Sixth
Amendments
The Content and Waiver of Miranda Warnings
The Meaning of an Interrogation and Custody
The Implications of Silence
Exceptions to the Miranda Warnings
The Impact of Miranda v. Arizona on Suspect Confessions
Research Spotlight: Why People Waive Their Miranda Rights:
The Power of Innocence
• Main Points
• Important Terms
III. The Hazards of Police Work
Chapter 10: Health and Safety Issues in Police Work
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Police Spotlight: Combatting Post-Traumatic Stress in the
Tampa Police Department
What Is Stress?
How Is Stress Measured?
The Causes of Police Stress

Workplace Problems
Shift Work
Good Policing: Managing Shift Work
The Effects of Stress
A Question of Ethics: Nap Time?
Suicide
Burnout
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Research Spotlight: Job-Related Burnout among Civilian and
Sworn Police Personnel
19
Early Death
What Can Mediate the Effects of Stress?
Physical Hazards of Police Work
Deaths on the Job: Accidents and Homicides
A Question to Consider 10.1: Stress, Counseling, and the Police
Culture
Injuries on the Job: Accidents and Assaults
So Is Police Work Dangerous?
Risks of Police Work
Arresting Suspects and Using Force
Technology on the Job: Police Body Armor
Foot Pursuits
Vehicle Accidents and Vehicle Pursuits

• Main Points
• Important Terms
Chapter 11: Police Use of Force
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
Police Spotlight: Making Use of Force Incidents Transparent
Reasonable Force and Use of Force Guidelines
Variations and Limitations of the Continuum of Force
The Twenty-One-Foot Rule and Its Limitations
Deviations in Use of Force: Unnecessary Force versus Brutality
Types of Force
A Question to Consider 11.1: Unnecessary Force versus
Brutality
Bodily Force
Deadly Force
A Question of Ethics: The Value of Police Restraint in Deadly
Force Situations
Suicide by Cop
Force Less Likely to Be Lethal
Research Spotlight: The Frequency and Characteristics of
Suicide by Cop Incidents
Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) Spray
Technology on the Job: Police Robots
Tasers
Patterns in Police Use of Force: Causes and Control

Good Policing: Early Intervention Systems
Officer Characteristics and Use of Force
Officer Assignment, Arrests, and Use of Force
Police Culture
20
The Control of Police Use of Force
• Main Points
• Important Terms
Chapter 12: Police Misconduct and Corruption
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
The Importance of Understanding Police Misconduct and
Corruption
Police Spotlight: Denver’s Citizen/Police Complaint Mediation
Program
Police Corruption
A Question of Ethics: Corruption in the Form of Free Coffee?
Police Misconduct
Police Integrity
The Nature and Extent of Police Misconduct and Corruption
Self-Report Surveys
A Question of Ethics: How Wrong Are These Police Actions?
Citizen Complaints
Lawsuits against the Police

Media Reports
Decertification Statistics
Causes of Police Misconduct and Corruption
Job and Organizational Characteristics
Power, Authority, and Discretion
Low-Visibility Work Environment
The Code of Silence and the Police Culture
The Control of Police Misconduct and Corruption
Controlling Police Discretion and Authority
Cracking the Code of Silence
A Question to Consider 12.1: Have You Ever Reported the
Misconduct of Another
Student?
Rules and Policies
Good Policing: The Importance of Police Honesty
A Proper Citizen Complaint Process
Proper Investigations of Misconduct
Ethics Training
Decertification of Officers and the National Decertification
Index
Early Intervention Systems
Technology on the Job: GPS, Tracking Police Vehicles, and
Preventing Misconduct
Research Spotlight: Americans’ Perceptions of Police Honesty
and Ethics
21

• Main Points
• Important Terms
IV. Police Strategies and the Future of the Police in America
Chapter 13: Community and Problem-Oriented Policing
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
The Rise of Community Policing
Police Spotlight: Problem-Oriented Policing in Chula Vista
A Question to Consider 13.1: Problem-Solving Efforts in Chula
Vista
Improve the Racial Composition of Police Departments
Community Relations Bureaus
Team Policing
Community Policing and Problem-Oriented Policing
Research Spotlight: Reassessing the Impact of Race on Citizens’
Attitudes toward the Police
Community Policing: The Details
Technology on the Job: Facebook, Twitter, and the Internet
A Question to Consider 13.2: How Should Police Departments
Use Social Networking
Sites Most Effectively?
A Theory of Community Policing: Broken Windows
The Relationship between Disorder, Crime, and the Police
The Relationship between Crime, the Fear of Crime, and the
Police
The Relationship between Citizens’ Attitudes toward the Police
and Other Outcomes

Can the Police Affect Citizens’ Attitudes toward the Police?
A Question of Ethics: How Involved Should the Police Be in
Citizens’ Lives?
Do Attitudes toward the Police Affect Coproduction?
Do Attitudes toward the Police Affect Law-Abiding Behaviors?
A Question to Consider 13.3: Why Obey the Law?
Overall Effectiveness of Community Policing
Good Policing: Verbal Judo and Procedural Justice
Problem-Oriented Policing: The Details
The SARA Model of Problem Solving
Overall Effectiveness of Problem-Oriented Policing
• Main Points
• Important Terms
Chapter 14: Evidence-Based and Intelligence-Led Policing
• Objectives
22
• Fact or Fiction
Smart Policing
Police Spotlight: Smart Policing in the Reno Police Department
A Question to Consider 14.1: Is Smart Policing New?
Good Policing: Smart Policing and Convenience Store Crime
Data-Driven and Evidence-Based Policing

Other Bases for Policy Decisions
Should Policy Decisions Be Based on Research Findings?
COMPSTAT
Predictive Policing
Crime Analysis
Geospatial Crime Analytics
Research Spotlight: Alcohol Outlets and Crime
A Question of Ethics: Balancing the Right to Know with the
Right to Privacy
The Impact of Geospatial Crime Analysis
Intelligence-Led Policing
Limitations of Intelligence-Led Policing
Technology on the Job: National Crime Information Center
• Main Points
• Important Terms
Chapter 15: Terrorism, Technology, Accountability, and the
Future of American Policing
• Objectives
• Fact or Fiction
History as a Guide to the Future
Crisis and Change in Police History
Police Spotlight: The Significance of September 11 for Law
Enforcement
New Demands on the Police
A Question of Ethics: Information at What Cost?
Definitions and Variations of Terrorism

Research Spotlight: Terrorists’ Tools and Targets
Terrorism
Technology
Accountability
A Question to Consider 15.1: Police and Progress
The New Police
Militarization
Good Policing: Militarization of Policing in Balance
The New Technology of Crime Detection and Accountability
23
The Technology of Accountability
The Technology of Identification
A Question to Consider 15.2: What’s So Great about Privacy?
The Technology of “Seeing”
Technologies for Computer and Internet Applications
Technologies for Information Management and Access
The Implications of Technology
• Main Points
• Important Terms
Appendix: The Bill of Rights, United States Constitution
Glossary
Endnotes
Index

24
Preface
Police in America provides a realistic assessment of policing in
the United States. Policing is inherently
controversial, and police work is extraordinarily challenging.
There are higher expectations, greater scrutiny,
and more calls for accountability of the police in the twenty-
first century than ever before. In this environment
it is critically important that students have a well-developed
understanding of the complex role of police in our
society, an appreciation of the challenges of policing, and an
ability to differentiate fact from fiction in matters
relating to the police. Police in America provides this
understanding.
If an accurate understanding of the police in America is the
goal, then a discussion of the research that has
been conducted on policing is a primary means to reaching that
goal. Research findings can identify and dispel
the many myths, misconceptions, and false assumptions of
policing. Research also can also help identify best
practices in policing. An emphasis on research is also especially
important given the current trends toward
evidence-based policing. Police in America emphasizes police
research. This emphasis does not mean that the
text is complicated or difficult to read, however. In fact, the
opposite is true: The text is easy to read and
accessible to students. It is written in a straightforward and
conversational manner.
Police in America emphasizes positive aspects of policing but
does so without sugar-coating the controversies of

police work. The media tend to focus on negative incidents by
highlighting the bad or questionable conduct of
a few officers. Although there are certainly lessons to be
learned from such incidents, these images and stories
can provide an inaccurate overall picture of the police. The
reality is that exemplary police work is being
performed by police officers and law enforcement agencies
throughout the country. Police in America
highlights some of this work.
Police in America also examines several other themes, including
the following:
Ethical Policing: Because of the nature of the work and how the
decisions of officers may affect citizens
and the community, it is essential that students consider what
constitutes not only a legally good
decision but also a morally good one.
Critical Thinking: Students should be able to think critically
about the complex problems and issues
involved with policing.
The Impact of Technology: The technological tools of policing
have changed dramatically over the
years, and it is important to understand how technology has
fundamentally altered the nature of the
police job.
Diversity: To understand policing today, one must appreciate
the modern-day and historical roles of
race and diversity. Some of the most challenging issues of
policing today are at least partly based on race.
The contributions of police research, positive aspects of
policing, ethics, critical thinking, the role of
technology in police work, and diversity issues are emphasized
throughout Police in America. The text offers
several features in each chapter to help establish an accurate

understanding of the police in America:
25
Police Spotlight: These features introduce each chapter and
discuss a particular police policy, program,
or other issue that relates to the topic of that chapter.
Research Spotlight: These features highlight a particularly
interesting and significant research study
relevant to the topic of each chapter.
Good Policing: Each of these features includes an example of a
police program, policy, or issue that
relates to effective, efficient, equitable, or ethical policing.
A Question of Ethics: The questions presented in these features
relate to the topic of the chapter and
require students to think critically about that particular moral or
ethical issue.
A Question to Consider: Each of these features offers a question
related to the topic at hand for
students to consider, answer, and/or discuss.
Technology on the Job: These features highlight and examine a
particular technology used by the police
while on the job.
With regard to the unique content of Police in America and the
issues discussed in the book, especially
noteworthy are the separate chapters on police discretion and
ethics (Chapter 8), the law (Chapter 9), health
and safety issues in police work (Chapter 10), police use of
force (Chapter 11), crime detection and
investigation (Chapter 7), and intelligence-led and evidence-
based policing (Chapter 14). Each of these
chapters is extremely important in developing a solid
understanding of the police in America, and it is through

their inclusion, along with comprehensive and timely coverage
of other critical topics, that Police in America
clearly differentiates itself from other texts.
With regard to the overall content and organization of the text,
the first four chapters provide a foundation for
the study of the police (the history of the police, role and
function of the police, characteristics of police
organizations). The second section of the book includes five
chapters that examine the nature of police work
(police recruitment, selection, and training; police patrol,
criminal investigation, discretion and ethics, and the
law). The third section is devoted to the hazards of police work
and provides a discussion of health and safety
issues, police use of force, and police misconduct. The last
section includes three chapters on the most recent
strategies of policing (problem-oriented policing, evidence-
based policing) as well as a discussion of the future
of policing.
Police in America provides students with a …
Contemporary Policing
Take Home Assignment #3
Please read: Chapter 15 (pages 355-357) and watch: John Oliver
– Ferguson, MO and Police Militarization: Last Week Tonight
on YouTube.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUdHIatS36A&t=2s)
In this class, we have talked about many issues that this video
touches upon--- Community Policing, Homeland Policing,
Community-Police relations, Minorities and the Police and
Ferguson, MO itself, in our review of the DOJ’s Consent
Decree.

Using our past discussions, the textbook and other course
materials, please answer the following question:
How, if at all, does the militarization of the police help or
hamper with crime prevention and community-police
relationships?
- Write a 1-page (250-350 words) response to this question.
Responses are due on Friday, April 3rd at midnight (12am).
For complete marks:
· All answers must be in full and complete sentences
· Make sure that it is clear what questions are you are
answering.
· Put your name at the top of each page and within the title of
your document
i.e. “Professor_D’Souza_Assignment #1”
· Only Microsoft Word documents will be accepted.
· Google doc, pdfs etc., will not be opened.
· Ensure proper spelling and grammar.
· Font should be Times New Roman, 12pt and double-spaced.

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