This document provides information on post-harvest handling techniques for oil crops in Ethiopia. It discusses the challenges smallholder farmers face with post-harvest losses and outlines improved handling methods. Specifically, it covers harvesting oil crops at optimal maturity, drying crops adequately, threshing, transporting, storing, and managing pests. The document emphasizes harvesting on time before shattering, using proper drying and storage methods like hermetic bags to minimize losses of important oil crops in Ethiopia such as sesame, nuge, linseed, and rapeseed. Overall, the document outlines best practices for smallholders to reduce post-harvest losses of oil crops from field to storage.

1. የእርሻ እና ተፈጥሮ ሀብት ሚኒስቴር
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural
Resources
Post-Harvest Loss and handling of oil crops
Senior Farmers based seed Multiplication and Post-Harvest handling Expert
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources
+251-931524060
teshagerabe@gmail.com
PoBox 10557 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Teshager Abebaw

2. Content
• Part one: Back ground
• Part Two: Post-harvest Value chain and Post-Harvest loss
• Part Three: Improved Post-Harvest handling techniques

3. Part One: Background

4. Our farmers Challenge in Summer
 The Majority of our farmers undergo in a very difficult period until the
fresh harvest arrives,
 The farmers had already spend the harvest from the previous season and
the fresh harvest is far from reaching
 The back of the pair of oxen's had been already exhausted in the muddy
summer due to the plowing

5. The hope in September and the prosperity back
“Ayzosh Nebsae, Dereselesh Gebsae”
 September onward farmers begin to inspire the new year, crops are
maturing and the livestock's body recovered
October on ward
 Farmers had enough harvest in their granaries, ample hey in the backyard
for the livestock's and lots of honey
 New harvest in market
 Farmers spend a lot of harvest on wedding and other social connections

6. Post harvest – The farmers challenge
For the farmer, the challenges doesn’t end after harvest
It will then enter in to a period of serious challenges dealing with post-
harvest supply chain,
A vast amount of product is wasted before consumed, an amount which can
sustain the farmer in the hardship of the summer with out any problem
Post harvest loss and food wastage remains the major bottleneck in
Agriculture

7. Oil Crops In Ethiopia

8. Introduction
• Ethiopia has a huge potential for Oil cops production, The major Oil crops
• Among the edible oils crops, Sesame, Nuge, Linseed, Ground Nut, Rape seed and
Sun and saff flowers take the major part
• In 2005/06 EC around 816,125 ha of land was covered by oil crops from which about
7,112,592 Quintals of reduction had been harvested.
• Oil crops covers 6.58 % of the total area covered by grain crops

9. Production of Major Oils Crops (2002-
2007 EC )
-
500,000.00
1,000,000.00
1,500,000.00
2,000,000.00
2,500,000.00
3,000,000.00
3,500,000.00
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
ሰሊጥ
ኑግ
ተልባ
ጎመን ዘር
ሱፍ
ለውዝ

10. Introduction Continued
Oil crops have several Importance's
• Industrial inputs
• For the production of edible oils
• Confectionary use
• Production of Paint( especially castor and rape seed oil)
• Production of Varnishes
• Production of Soap ( all form of oils)
Livestock feed
Excellent Crop Rotation Options

11. Introduction Continued
Economic Benefits
Oil crops are the second largest exportable commodities next to coffee
Besides they help in
• Improvement of the income of farmers
• They creates additional investment
• Playing its role in modernizing the trade system
• Create additional job opportunity
• Higher source of foreign currency earner following to coffee…
• Generally, they play a significant role in the economic transformation of the
country

12. GTP II Production Plan of Major oils crops
000’ Quintals
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Sesame
Nuge
Linseed
Rape Seed
Sunflower
Ground Nut

13. Continued
• To achieve the goals set out on the GTP II plan increasing
production through the use of improved techniques is the
major focus
• On the mean time reducing the post-harvest loss our country
encounters is will generate additional grain which could
reducing the amount of oil we are importing from abroad

14. The magnitude of post harvest loss in oil crops

15. • The quantity of oil crops which we are loosing due to post-
harvest handling in Ethiopia is not well documented
• However studies conducted on sesame alone indicates the post
harvest loss will reach as high as 50 %
• The stages where post-harvest loss encounters in oil crops is
variable
• The post-harvest loss is aggravated by the shattering nature of
the crops

16. Post Harvest Loss at different stages

17. Major Bottlenecks

18.  Non-Coordinated efforts by several actors
 Lack of a national strategy or policy which lead the post harvest initiatives
 Limited emphasis for Post-Harvest handling like the production
 Limited Post harvest extension service
 Limited technologies which are affordable by small holders
 Limited resources for post-harvest research
 Limited Value addition technologies which are affordable by small holder
farmers

19.  Non- Uniform Post-harvest structure through out the country
 Limited emphasis for storage pests
 Limited attention for postharvest operation by the farmers as compared to
pre-harvest operations
 Lack of uniform structural arrangement of Agricultural Mechanization
departments in all regions

20. Part Two: Post-harvest supply chain and Post-Harvest loss

21. Post harvest supply chain
What is Post-Harvest supply chain?
• It is agricultural process which ranges from Harvest to the
table
• Post Harvest is almost half portion of the agricultural sector,
• It includes preparing the harvest to a most suitable form for
consumers and Industries

22. Primary Processing Secondary Processing
Post Harvest Process

23. Food loss Vs Food Waste
Post harvest:-
food loss: A product which become out of the supply
chain due to uncontrolled conditions
food waste: A food wastage after a table or before
consumed

24. Global Fact 1 : the extent
• Every year around the globe 1.3 billion tones of food is lost or
wasted, that is a 1/3 of all food produced for human
consumption

26. Global Fact 2 Economics: Worldwide, about one-third of all food produced,
worth around US$1 trillion, gets lost or wasted in food production
and consumption systems, /FAO;

27. Global Fact 3 The variation
Food loss occurs mostly at the production stages – harvesting, processing and
distribution – while food waste typically takes place at the retailer and
consumer end of the food-supply chain; / FAO

28. Food waste and loss in Ethiopia
• A solid information on the extent of food loss and waste in Ethiopia is lacking
• Post-Harvest losses were long considered to be contributed by storage alone,
• Proper attention was not paid to losses occurring during harvesting, drying,
threshing, transportation, milling and pre-milling treatments
• Post harvest crop loss in Ethiopia starts from the field and reach's its peak in
storage

29. Brake out session/ Practical (20 minutes)
Discussion points
• Group 1: What are the major oil crops and extent of production
• Group 2 : Draw the supply chain of one major oil crop
• Group 3: what is the extent of oil crops post harvest loss in the locality
• Group 4: What are the Major causes of the losses

30. Part Three: Improved Post-Harvest handling
techniques of Oil crops

31. Getting a high quality grain from the farm
• Preparing for the new harvest
• Harvesting on time
• Harvesting the crop
• Transporting the crop from the field to the homestead
• Dry the grain
• Threshing the grain
• Cleaning the grain
• Ensuring good storage of grain at home

32. Maturity
(a) Physiological maturity:
• A development stage of a crop after which no further increases in dry matter occurs in
the grain.
• Crop is considered to be at physiological maturity when the translocation of
photosynthetic products to the grain is stopped.
(b) Harvest maturity:
• A stage of a crop coming next to physiological maturity,
• At this period there is loss of moisture from the plants.
• Use the following harvest maturity indicators for Proper harvesting

33. Harvest Indicators of Major oils crops
Crop Criteria for harvesting
Sesame
• Sesame can mature from 90- 150 days depending on the type of
variety
• The stem and the Leaves and capsules will turn to lemon color,
• The harvesting time for sesame is very short and when 2/3 of the
entire farm turns to yellow
• It is not advisable to wait until the top capsules shatter seed
Nuge
• About 25% of the grain will be lost unless the crop is harvested on
time
• Harvesting after 3 weeks when 50% of the flowers had fallen is
an ideal harvesting time in central Ethiopia
• When the upper leaves turns to yellow and lower leaves turns to
Brown
• This helps in reducing crop loss and maintain oil quantity
Linseed
– Depending on the type of varieties and the ecology, Linseed
requires 90-150 days until it mature
– When the leaves get dried and turn to brown
– When the seeds in the pod have a special sound
– During this period the moisture content of the seeds will come

34. Indicators of Harvesting time
Crop Criteria for harvesting
Rape Seed
• Depending on the type of varieties and the ecology, rape
seed requires 156-160 days to mature
• When the capsule changes to brown and the stem changes
to straw color
• When the seeds in the capsule have a particulate sound
Ground Nut
• Depending on the type of varieties and the ecology,
Ground nut requires 120-150 days to mature
• When the leaves turn to yellow unroot some plants and
look on some of the pods
• If the seeds in the pod have brown or dark brown
• When the seed looks full on the seed caat

35. Quality (<%oil, test, reddish color,
aroma,
Physically immature seed (<
weight shriveled,

36. Delayed Harvesting causes Shattering in
sesame

38. Matured Linseed

39. Ripen Rape seed

40. Harvesting

41. Preparing for harvest
• Oil Crops are vulnerable for high crop loss due to shattering
• They need to be harvested on time before the crop dry too much
• Therefore the following should be prepared ahead of time
• Enough personnel
• Enough harvesting tools,( sickles, or harvesters, New Sacks, Trashing mat/
Canvas)
• Transporting tools

42. Harvesting time
• Sesame and other shattering type of oil crops should be
Harvested early on the morning to avoid opening of the
capsules and potential shattering
• Where as non- shattering types of oil crops could be
harvested after the morning dew is removed from the foliar
or from the plant.

43. Method of Harvesting
• Most oil crops are harvested with man power although there
are several machineries which had been developed so far
• However since recent time only Sickle and motorized rippers
are used in Ethiopia
• The crops can be harvested by cutting the crop from its base
and bundle together in case of Sesame, Linseed and Rape
seed

46. Motorized harvesting

47. Drying the Harvest
• The harvest should dry on the filed on a canvas or
mat
• Don’t let drying grain get wet, cover with a canvas if
it rains
• The Harvest should be guarded from animals and
birds

49. Threshing

50. Preparation before threshing
 Preparing mat, canvas, flat ground and threshing tools
 Clean grain stores and sacks thoroughly so that the residues of the old
harvest are not mixed with the new crop

51. Preparing threshing ground If threshing
is done manually
• A traditional threshing ground in Ethiopia doesn’t help to in reducing post
harvest loss of oils crops
• The threshing ground should be prepare in way that It is flat enough and
plastered with the mud
• The ground should be covered with a plastic mat/ Canvas
• In case of maize women's and children's shell the grain using hand
• In case of Sesame The Hillas should be collected in bundles and Placed in
upright position Immediately after harvest

52. Stacking The Hillas on the Canvas

53. Manual Threshing
• After the harvest is pilled on the canvas, the bundles will be
beaten with a stick or other tools until the grain is released
from the straw.
• In case of Sesame another canvas will be arranged and the
Hilla will be inverted upside down so as the seed will be
dropped from the capsules
• Incase of ground nut the capsules will be pulped using
different tools

55. Available Technologies
• Multi Crop Thresher
 Originally Used for threshing of cereals:
 However with slight adjustment it can
thresh Rape seed nuge and Linseed
 It is engine driven.
 Capacity: up to 6 – 10 qt/hr
 Fuel Consumption: 1 – 2 lt/hr
 Crop is threshed on canvas:
 No contamination with soil & animal
waste

56. Transporting

57. Drying

58. How to determine the grain moisture
content
Salt and bottle technique
• Dry a salt on sunshine and grind it
while it well
• Taking a dry bottle Fill 2/3 of the its
part with a grain then Pour the
dried and grinded salt and shake it
enough
• If you see a lot of salt particles
attached to the bottle you should
go back to dry the seed again

59. Drying
• Most of the time grain crops contains extra
moisture during harvest.
• In some seasons grain crops becomes ripe
and ready for harvest during the heavy rains,
• The problem is keeping the amount of water
in the grain at a very low level.
• If the grain is wet then the seed coat is not
strong enough to keep out insects and
moulds which cause spoilage.
• Also, if the grain is wet it will respire much
faster.
• C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l)
+ heat

60. Precautions during drying
 Use canvas, mats, paved cement or any container to dry the threshed grain,
 Cover the crop during rain.
 Keep animals away, the grain may be damaged, eaten or contaminated
 Every 2 hours turn the grain for 5 minutes
 The grain should be covered or collected at night

61. Storage

62. storage
• Harvesting of crop is seasonal,
• But consumption of food grain is continuous.
• The market value of the products is mostly low at harvesting time.
• So the farmers/growers, cooperatives need storage facility until market price
improves

63. Continued
• An ideal storage facility should:
• Provide maximum possible protection (dry, cool &well ventilated)
 Abiotic Factors /Temperature, Moisture& Rh/
 Biotic Factors /Insect pests, Microorganisms, Rodents…/
• Provide the necessary facility for inspection, disinfection, loading, unloading, cleaning
and reconditioning.
• Be economical and suitable for a particular situation…

64. Oil crops should never be stored in
traditional storages
• Oil crops are high value crops and they should never be stored
in Ethiopian traditional storage facilities like gotera, gota or
under ground pits
• This is because the crops contain high level of oil which could
results in afla-toxin development and changing in the
character of the oil
• Therefore modern warehouses and improved PP bags should
be used in combination with hermetic storages

65. Preparation for storage
• Any remnant and spillage of previous harvest should be removed from the
warehouse
• The ware house should be cleaned and fumigated well before storage
• The warehouse should be ventilated and modified for attack against rodents,
• Prepare a new sack if possible or wash the sack and dip it in a hot water
before putting grain in it.
• All the bags should not be teared
• Pallets for stacking the sacks should be prepared before time

66. Storing
• Put grain in sacks and sew them shut
• Place the sacks on pallets of sticks or stones, leave some distance from the
any side of the walls.
• Check the store regularly for any problems

67. HERMETIC (AIR TIGHT) STORAGES
• Very ideal type of storage for exportable crops, Safe and Organic with
out using chemicals no insects & moulds developed
• Prevents movement of O2
• Crops stored as fresh as at harvest after long period of storage
Plastic Coccon – for
Cooperatives Super Bag Plastic Jars & Barrel Metal Silo

68. Management of Storage Pests

69. Mould
• Mould is the common problem in all warehouses
all over the world
• It is caused due to high grain moisture, high
relative humidity and warm temperature in store
• It is a fungal disease which can spoil the grain
• Some fungus’s produce Mycotoxins which are
dangerous for human and animal health
• A molded grain is discolored and have a nasty smell
• Mould could be controlled easily by improving the
storage conditions

70. control
• Harvest the crop at the right time of maturity, don’t let rain damage the crop
on the field
• Dry the grain to the required moisture level before storage
• clean the warehouse well before taking grain to the storage
• Soak the sacks in boiling water before putting grain inside and dry it well
• Create aeration in the storage to reduce the temperature
• Never use Mould grain for human consumption because it may potentially
have mycotoxin

71. Insect pests
• There are several families of storage insect pests The major one are
Lepidoptera(Moths) and coleopteran (weevils and beetles)
• The damage level by this pests could reach 100% unless monitored well
• In some cases the damage due to insects start from the field and aggravated in
the store
• The effect of insects is damaging the grain by making holes on it and
downgrading the quality through their droppings
• They also act as precursor for the damage by mold

72. control
• Harvest the crop at the right time of maturity, don’t let rain damage the crop on the field
• Dry the grain to the required moisture level before storage
• clean the warehouse well before taking grain to the storage
• Soak the sacks in boiling water before putting grain inside and dry it well
• Create aeration in the storage to reduce the temperature
• The use of air tight containers
• Never mix old and fresh harvest in the same store
• Mixing large seeded and small seeded grain(tef with maize gives long term storage)
• If an out brake, Fumigate the store before bringing a new harvest with fumigant chemicals
like phosphine and actelic 5%
• If long-term storage, dress the seed with insecticides like malathion 5%

73. Rodents
• Rodents consume almost everything that a farm house can
have except metallic objects
• Rodents control should be seen in a multi dimensional
approach
• Rodents open door for attack by other pests by attacking the
storage structure
• They are very tricky and very cleaver animals

74. control
• Building impregnable storage structures for rat damage
• Biological control with cats in rural household
• In larger storage: fumigating the store with phosphine
• Studding the dynamics and the raring sites to poison
• rat poisoning with rodenticides

75. Dealing with phosphine (aluminum
phosphide )
• Phosphine is one of the most poisonous and dangerous farm chemicals
• It is sold in closed container which is highly air tight
• Once the container is opened the tablet starts to evaporate to colorless
and fishy odor gas
• The gas is the most poisonous chemical which can kill humans and other
larger farm animals
• Many farmers and grain traders in Ethiopia usually mishandle phosphine
• If phosphine is managed properly its effect is extremely excellent

76. Working with Phosphine
• Inspect the store routinely and clean regularly
• If an infestation is observed call a qualified extension worker
• The bags should be on a pallet always and cover the whole bag and pallet
with an air tight canvas or plastic sheet.
• Make sure the cover is air right and no gas can come out or enter to the
coverege
• Place atlist two tablet for each tonn of grain under the pallets (or at least
under the sheet) on trays
• The fumigation should last for at least 5 days.
• During the fumigation the store should be locked and no one should enter
the store
• A warning notice should be fixed to the door of the store indicating that a
fumigation is in progress and no-one should enter

78. Points to remember
 Make sure you are well prepared before the
harvest, with the necessary equipment and
storage facilities
 Harvest when the crop is at harvest maturity, but
do not early or delay,
 Harvest in sunny dry weather,
 Thresh/shell the crops on a canvas,
 Use clean containers/bags to transport the crop
and avoid spillage,

79. Points to remember
 Crops can be dried in the sun on a plastic sheet,
woven mats or cement drying floor,
 Never allow drying the crop to come into
contact with the soil and keep animals away,
 The crop must be covered with a plastic sheet if
it is going to rain and at night time,

80. Points to remember
 The grain is dry enough when the
moisture content is ≤14%
 Make a careful decision about how
much crop the farmers will keep for
consumption, seed and for sale.

81. The role of the extension workers
 Awareness creation
 Providing advice and information to farmers
 Stages in the advice process:
 Identifying the problems;
 Prioritizing the problems;
 Finding out what the farmer really wants to
achieve; and
 Providing appropriate solutions

82. Thank you