Witchcraft And The Social History Of Early Modern Europe

Witchcraft And The Social History Of Early Modern Europe
With a survey of history, it is evident that our world has encountered a broad range of cultures
throughout time. Each culture is characterized by their own special practices. Bever (2002) samples
one of these practices in his extensive journal on the social history of early modern Europe. The
"cultural puzzle" that Bever mainly focuses on is witchcraft and its social prevalence in European
history. Before delving into Bever's work, I believe that is is important to reflect upon Harris's
(1989) quote: "If you don't think a puzzle has an answer, you'll never find it" (p.5). It is important to
apply this idea to culture studies. Essentially, Harris is saying that if one were to automatically dub
foreign culture practices as "insane" or assume
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The Myth Of Venice: How Cultural Strongholds In Early...
"The Myth of Venice": How Cultural Strongholds in Early Modern Europe led to the makings of a
Tourism Magnet
A center for trade and an impressive seaside empire, Venice was a force to be reckoned
with in the early modern era. Venice was a veritable feast for the senses. It was an unusual
mixture of religions, social classes. Cultural aspects of Renaissance Venice such as the arts and
architecture that came from the period are what drew travelers to the region. Other influences
were the unique structure of the republic as well as the power and authority that it reflected.
Focusing on the Grand Tour among the British and others, there were further social and
economic elements that dictated travel customs in the 17th and 18th century. ... Show more content
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James Boswell in contrast
to the first two narratives will provide a discussion on ideas that were more controversial and
enlightened.
Secondary sources will reinforce the ideas and themes that these travel narratives
provide. Historians and other scholars have offered their perspective, observations and analysis
through these works. Rosemary Sweet and Lisa Colleta offer an effective commentary that
discusses the origins and specificities of the Grand Tour in their respective monographs, Cities
and the Grand Tour: The British in Italy, c. 1690–1820 and The Legacy of the Grand Tour: New
Essays on Travel, Literature, and Culture. While Sweet and Colleta provide a good general

foundation for understanding the Grand Tour, Chloe Chard expounds on travel writing during the
period in Pleasure and Guilt on the Grand Tour: Travel Writing and Imaginative Geography,
1600–1830. Furthermore, Peter Humfrey, Peter Burke and Edward Muir deliver an

18th Century Healthcare
During the early modern period the provision of healthcare in Europe was predominately driven by
two distinct elements these were commercial enterprise, and religious and moral duty. Each aspect
had its place in an individual and communities life and both were used for cures when ill health,
accident or disabling inflictions struck. This right to choose treatments was limited only by available
funds to purchase medical services and consumables, access to services depending on location, i.e.
whether urban or rural and the availability of charitable bodies or wise neighbors to provide medical
solutions. This essay will explore how the civil management of healthcare was primarily focused on
protecting trade and how both the commercial and religious ... Show more content on
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These rules were designated for the "corporal spiritual brother "for the Catholic Camillan religious
order specifically formed as part of the counter –reformation initiatives specifically to increase the
charitable care of the sick. The 'spiritual brother' was responsible for tending to the soul of the sick
and dying. The passage describes how the Catholic sacraments of confession, communion, and last
rights, to prepare the recipient for death and the day of judgement. "He should give them.... The
book to commend their souls to God". The text is limited as set of rules as it does not describe
practices thereafter. Steven–Crawshaw (2010 11.2:A) demonstrates how religion influenced the
State of Venice and the efforts undertaken to protect the faithful from the contracting Europe's
endemic plague. Venice had its population decimated by on third population following a plague
epidemic in 1630. When abated the Catholic church of Santa Maria de Salute was built to "the glory
of God were Venice to be released...of plague." This iconic edifice reminded all faithful that the
plague was a scourge on sinners and a symbol of God's forgiveness to those that repented. Porter
(1987 p35) states thatl charitable works and Moral responsibility for the sick overall increased,
particularly during the eighteenth century's period of Enlightenment. He indicates that in England,
wealthy benefactors drove change and

Early Modern Europe – Major Forces for Change
Early Modern Europe – Major Forces for Change
There are a lot of events that shaped the history of early Europe. Our ancestors had a lot on their
plate when they discovered new lands and fought new diseases. One of the early forces that had a
major impact were the crusades. The Crusades were a bunch of religious wars that were called on by
the Pope and the Catholic Church in order to defend Christianity against the Muslims and get closer
to the holy cities and other places in ancient Palestine. So what exactly does "crusade" mean? The
word comes from an old French word "crois", which means cross (if you haven't guessed it). The
crusaders (men who take vows to fight for Christianity) were not usually under a single banner, they
all ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Other examples would be the fighter's guild, or the elusive thief's guild.
Another event that caused a massive change in Europe was "The Black Death", a very deadly
epidemic that claimed a massive number of victims. The plague was believed to be brought by rats
from the eastern trade routes. There were 3 ways to get infected. First one was "bubonic" which gets
its name from the massive swellings that the victim had on their head and arms. The swellings were
usually the size of a small apple. This type was mainly spread the same way as malaria, via insects.
Fleas would usually attach themselves to rats or other infected animals and then come in contact
with humans, and infected immediately, the life expectancy was no more than one week. The second
type was the "pneumonic" plague, as the word suggests it usually attacked the lungs first, because it
was spread just by breathing the same air as another victim, in turn it was much more dangerous and
life expectancy was no more than 2 days. The third type of the plague was the "septicemic" which
translates to a disease which attacks the bloodstream. Suffice to say that no doctor at that time could
cure it, either because they were too afraid to even go near the victims or perhaps they were just
ignorant. The reaction to the plague was mixed. One of the scenarios that happened is best described
in the story "The Masque of the Red Death" by Edgar Allan Poe. A group of nobles shut themselves
in a

The Thirty Years War : Early Modern Europe
Malcolm Michels Navarro November 15, 2015 HST 111 – Early Modern Europe Thirty Years
Wasted The Thirty Years War (1618 – 1648) was a large influence in the pivotal turning point that
changed European history for the decades to come. The long, painful war was composed of a series
of battles that were primarily fought on German soil with several nations taking part. It was
commonly seen to have begun when the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Bohemia attempted
to restrain other religious activities under his governing body . As a result, Ferdinand sparked a
rebellion among Protestants to debunk the old centralized Roman Catholic empire. Religious
catastrophes coupled with political struggles sparked the Thirty Years War and would later have
severe implications on how Europe would operate politically, religiously and diplomatically. The
Thirty Years War, the religious war to end all wars, would be remembered as one of the most
significant events in European history. So what exactly sparked the war? "The war began as a
conflict between Protestant German princes and the Catholic emperor over religious constitutional
issues" and was officially ignited in 1618 with the Defenestration of Prague . The built up religious
tension between nations had created some momentum and this act sparked a war. In 1618, members
of the predominantly Protestant Behmian legislature threw two imperial officials out of the third
story castle window as a protest against the religious policies that

Religious Toleration In Divided By Faith By David Kaplan
Conversions and interfaith marriages were other ways that Europeans of different faiths interacted.
Both conversions and interfaith marriages were considered taboo in early modern religious life.
Mixed marriage was a taboo because it was a catalyst for interactions between faiths which some
Europeans believed caused religious divisions to break down. Jews and Muslims were considered
religious outsiders in early modern Europe. Their status as religious outsiders was one reason that
they were usually tolerated by the corpus Christianum. Jews and Christians usually lived in separate
communities which made it easier for them to coexist. Jews and Muslims were not integrated or
assimilated into European society during the early modern era, yet they ... Show more content on
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Kaplan's book is loosely chronological with a few deviations throughout the book. The structure of
Kaplan's book is thematic, and his arguments progress in a logical order. The organization of
Divided by Faith is structured; however, the firm structure of the book becomes repetitious. His
writing style is easy to read and the subheadings within the chapters improve the flow of Kaplan's
argument. His coverage of toleration in early modern Europe is comprehensive and expresses how
religious toleration took many forms in early modern Europe as well as illustrating how the
Enlightenment did not produce increased religious toleration. The concepts of Divided by Faith
demonstrate the obstacles towards religious toleration, the practice of religious toleration in early
modern Europe, the interactions between faiths and the changing notions towards the rise of
toleration. Kaplan fails to account for how the Christian toleration of Jews in early modern Europe
was facilitated by the Jews being previously subdued. Divided by Faith highlights a reinterpretation
of the practice of religious toleration in early modern Europe and it is significant to European
history as it encourages its readers to have a different outlook on how one can practice religious

Trial of Temple Anneke Essay
Predetermined Justice
Witchcraft in early modern Europe was understood to be the combination of maleficium and
diabolism. The term maleficium refers to the actual act of witchcraft, which was believed to be
harmful magic or sorcery. Allegations of maleficium were simply the foundation for the crime of
witchcraft. Diabolism is what made witchcraft a crime because it involved trading oneself for
magical abilities from the Devil (xxv).
With regard to religion during early modern Europe, it was highly regarded. There was no direct
separation between church and state. Witchcraft was acknowledged as an act against God, as well as
a capital offense. The Carolina, which was the "imperial criminal code....of Emperor Charles V",
was based ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Tempel Anneke was accused of crimes that were, for the most part, uncontrollable events.
Unfortunately for Tempel Anneke, during this time people were quick to assume witchcraft as the
source of their problems or any negative unexplainable event. There was very little knowledge about
healthcare at this time so it was a common practice to just blame it on the "witch."
The initial questions Tempel Anneke was asked pointed out the similarities between her and what
were thought to be the characteristics of a witch. When the interrogator questioned her age and
means of personal finance, she did not state her age but did say that she was a widow and lived with
her son on his farm but did perform healings when needed. She was then questioned about her
education and religious practices. She responded by saying she had learned how to heal people from
observing her mother. Also, she testified that she knew the commandments but had not been to the
table of the Lord or the Holy Communion in two years (15). It did not help that she was not looked
up to in the community but was part of the lower class. According some of the testimony by her
accusers, most people thought that Tempel Anneke was a crazy, old drunk.
As questioning continued, she was asked about specific crimes that she had been accused of
committing. After the testimony had been taken from

Execution In Early-Modern Europe
Maintenance of power and fear is an essential action by the majority of monarchs and rulers within
the early–modern age. Without the populace living within a mental state of worry, and being
constantly agitated by the looming threat of capital punishment, the European continent would not
be unified between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries. This concept of mass horror and tyranny
was modelled around the use of capital punishment, torture, and execution, and through the public
action of these forms of justice, the monarchs and spiritual leaders kept an ability to rule with an
iron fist over the populace of a nation–state. However execution was also a public affair and was
enjoyed by the masses to a large extent due to the sense of justice and vengeance it created, and a
feeling of freedom from lawless criminals due to the large punishment awaiting them if citizens
were to break the strict and direct laws of kingdoms. Another aspect of execution was the role of
religion and The Roman Catholic Church in regards to the execution of religious ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Overall through execution early–modern European monarchies and governments were able to
control the population through terror and fear, as well as use religion and religious sanction to
remove those who challenged the head of state. Execution and torture played a huge role within
early–modern Europe, and through this one can observe that the role these actions played within
Europe impacted society and individuals to a maximum extent. Execution, was a large weapon of
terror for European monarchies, and through this terror monarchs were able to control the
population, and execute those who disturbed internal stability and peace. Executioners were
considered by many to be the sole distributor of justice within a kingdom, and without their pivotal
role, the

Article Review: "Song, Confession, and Criminality: Trial...
The first article up for review, Alexander Fisher's "Song, Confession, and Criminality: Trial Records
as Sources for Popular Musical Culture in Early Modern Europe," is extremely thorough and
detailed. After a lengthy introduction, the thesis is finally stated. His goal with this article is to gain
an understanding of popular music in early–modern Europe through trial records of three cases of
people being accused of anti–Catholic sentiment. He lists his methodology after this, planning to
comb through their individual case files which includes documents on the interrogation questions
used and other tactics that were employed (i.e. torture). Fisher then gives us his plan for the
conclusion, in which he says he will offer some unifying ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Fisher gives us the Fragstück as promised and the reveals to us that Schädlin was released a day
after his confession due to his honesty. Fisher then dives into analysis of both text and music to give
us an understanding of why this song was punishable by law and why it was popular among
Schädlin's protestant peers at the time. Fisher builds his case backwards (in my opinion) but it works
beautifully. First, he gives us Psalm 124 from the Bible, which was set to music by two prominent
early Protestant composers, Johann Walter and Justus Jonas. Fisher draws connections in both text
and technical set up between the three to give the reader an understanding of the strong political
imagery employed by Schädlin. He mentions specific changes Schädlin to draw out anger in the
Church, including an implication that the Catholics "clamor for his blood" (Dr. Müller being the
subject given to us in the introduction). Fisher also highlights Schädlin's connection between local
government and ancient Roman tyranny. Fisher ends this section of his article by focusing on the
link between the Justus Jonas setting of the Psalm and Schädlin's altered version, citing this as a
reason for its popularity among dissenting Protestants at the time and as a reason the local
governments took such offense to the song. Next, Fisher moves on to The Case of Jonas Losch. He
starts out with a little historical background on Losch, including the

Which is Witch? Essay
The novel, "One Foot in Eden" by Ron Rash, is an extravagant story that takes the reader into a tail
of desperation, forgiveness and the inevitable change that comes with time. The novel is written in
first person by four different novel characters who include: The High Sheriff Alexander, Deputy
Bobby, Billy Holcombe, and his wife, Amy. The High Sheriff is looking for Holland Winchester,
who is known as a local ruffian and war hero. The Sheriff soon learns from Holland's mother that he
had been having an affair with Amy Holcombe prior to his disappearance. Although Amy loves her
husband Billy; he cannot give her a child because he is sterile. Amy goes to Holland Winchester, her
neighbor, to give her a child because Widow Glendower ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first characteristic of a witch is defined by a "person who uses non–physical means to cause
misfortune or injury to other humans (Hutton)." During the book, "One Foot in Eden," Widow
Glendower does not seek to hurt others or cause them ill will. Although the life of Holland
Winchester is taken in result of Widow Glendower's unconventional advice given to Amy, Widow
Glendower had nothing to do with the actions which lead toward the murder of Holland Winchester.
Widow Glendower was a herbal healer who wanted to help and cure people when they were sick.
She saves Billy Holcombe from a serious illness that could of taken his life. She is not reluctant to
provide Amy with "willow bark and boneset" (110 Rash) to break Billy's fever. The Widow is
known to have helped many another person when they wasn't no one else to doctor them...(68
Rash)." The Widow saves Amy's life from freezing to death and is not revengeful toward Amy for
not allowing her to midwife her baby. The Widow says to Amy, "If I wanted to revenge you why
didn't I let you freeze to death out on my porch. . .? (110 Rash)." The Widow is a "...harmless old
soul who'd learned to doctor with roots and leaves and tree bark back when folks had to tend to their
own selves when they got sick (Rash)." Unfortunately, women who were herbal healers received a
bad name early in history that has been passed down from generations. Traditional

Advantages to the Industrial Revolution in Early Modern...
Prior to industrialization, the population of Europe saw a dramatic growth – from 110,000,000 to
190,000,000. What triggered this growth? Likely the end of feudalism. The end of feudal contracts
gave people a little more say in their day–to–day working activities, resulting in more time spent at
home, which ultimately resulted in childbearing. This would leave citizens scrambling both to
provide needs for the population as a whole, and to improve the individuals overall quality of life.
This resulted in economists, like Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations (1776), examining the most
cost–effective method of producing the goods and services citizens demanded (such as clothing and
food). It also left others, such as Thomas Malthus in his ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This was essential because the population boom that occurred from 1650–1800, where population
climbed from 110,000,000 to 119,000,000, created the need for materials food and clothing to be
produced faster to sustain growth. Machines such as the scribbling mill, and spinning jenny did the
work of a hundred hands, for every single human hand. Initially these machines were met by
workers with despair, as one machine in twelve hours could do the work of ten men by hand . These
machines also reduced labour by a third, which resulted in an increase in wage for workers and it
also worked to increase trade since nations were about to compete with one another for cheaper
resources . From an economic standpoint this shift in labour was beneficial to the masses because
instead of people exerting themselves to compete with other nations, machinery could just take on
the majority of the work, assisting in this movement. This benefitted business owners because they
did not need as many labourers, and they could also afford to lower taxes. Smith declares the
'invisible hand' as a necessity for society because capitalism drives people to seek cheaper sources,
and in return if you provide that you will ultimately gain wealth.
Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations that division of labour was the greatest improvement
resulting from the industrial revolution. Division of labour was beneficial to both the employee and
the employer. The

Advancements Of The Early Modern Period Medicine
It is difficult to decide whether the developments, inventions and discoveries of the Early Modern
Period contributed to European power or whether it contributed to European progress. The reason
this is, is because in the case of Europe, especially in this time period, power and progress seemed to
go hand in hand. In the case of discovery the countries that had the most power led the way in
discovering new land, it was this curiosity in expanding power that led to the progress of new
worlds and opportunities. The invention of the printing press contributed to providing knowledge
and therefore an aspect of power to people who did not have it beforehand and it was the progress of
medicines and sciences that ensured not only the power and 'superiority' of European knowledge but
also the ability to progress to the next level of knowledge.
From the beginnings of the Early Modern Period medicine was essentially summed up in high
mortality rates and the notion that men and women were two completely different people
anatomically, treatments were largely herbal and the type of doctor you went to see depended on
what was wrong with you and if you could afford them . "Attaining and preserving a state of health,
therefore, required balance, and that equilibrium was inherently elusive and easily forfeited" .
However, while there was some progress in this field throughout the period it was not as drastic as
one would expect, the Galenic body of the four humours was still a dominant

Family In Early Modern Europe
How many details of families in early modern Europe from the Renaissance to the 18th century have
you ever heard about? Nowadays, families make up the foundation of our society, including "almost
any combination of individuals whether they live under one roof or not, or are even related by
blood" (Brhel, 2010). However, families in the early modern Europe symbolized basic political
units, which stood for power and status. In the lecture "Early Modern European History: Familes in
Early Modern Europe," Vester introduces the detailed knowledge of families in early modern
Europe. Vester's description of the relationship between family and power, the means that family
gained wealth and the limitations to family's interests provides comprehensive, detailed understand
for people who live in modern society.
In "Early Modern European History: Familes in Early Modern Europe," Vester first represents the
significance of families in early modern Europe. As basic political units, family was the place where
power located before nation states with boundary, like USA, China, and Russia etc. existed. In
Roman Empire, family ruled territories through ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Personally, I think that these means to maintain and gain wealth are rather common even in modern
societies. Take myself for example, I discussed the value of marriage with my mother before. I said
that I am not the girl that cares about fortunes of her future husband, and wealth is not one of my
standards to measure my soul mate. However, my perspectives are opposed strongly by my mother,
and she argues that I should get married with a decent male or I will not get houses and cars from
her. In short, being matched for marriage is a common viewpoint in all

Emergence Of Homosexual Identities In Early Modern Europe
Rebelling Against Nature:
Same Sex Relations, Sodomy, and The Emergence of Homosexual Identities in Early Modern
Europe.
Although during the early modern period the term "homosexuality" may not have existed, the
persecution of homosexuals was a vicious practice which was sweeping across society in Early
Modern Europe. Without a name, homosexuality and homosexual identities were heavily diluted
down to simple definitions which would set the standard for how homosexual identities developed
and how homosexual individuals were treated for many years to come. This essay will discuss the
criminalization of sodomy and the demonization of homosexual individuals in Early Modern
European society. It will also argue that these brutal practices and

The Differences and Similarities of the Ottoman Empire and...
While taking the class of Early Modern European History there was two states that really stuck out
and peaked my interest the most. They were the Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. If you
compare and contrast both the Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe during the 16th Century
through the 18th Century, you will see that there are a number of similarities as well as differences
when you look at the expansion of the states. You will also see many of these contrasts as well when
you look in terms of each states military and commerce. Although the Ottoman Empire existed
before the 16th century and continued to exist past the 18th century and in great decline until the
early 20th century, when looking at the state as a whole the time ... Show more content on
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Also, there is such a thing called supply and demand, and the consumer chooses what is needed or
wanted. This article also signified the evolution of the English economy of moving away of
mercantilism capitalism. Both the articles had a significant impact on the societies of each state.
Perhaps the greatest comparisons can be made in how the two states expanded, grew, and changed
point of view within the time period. The second comparison point would be what role religion
played in to the time period, with the scope of the protestant uprising in the late 15th century and the
change in what citizens perceived the role of god and religion in society. Also important with this is
the role that the Millet system played within the Ottoman Empire specifically when overtaking new
lands and expanding. The third comparison point revolves around the economy and taxation habits
of both states, looking closely at the mercantile, trade, Industrial Revolution, and taxation. Lastly,
you can also look at the fall or change of both great states through important events and how those
events shaped their futures in many ways. Though the end of the 18th century and the Battle of
Vienna didn't mark the end of the Ottoman Empire, it did note the start to the downfall of the great
state. With the same token, the French Revolution marked another change and progression from
Early Modern Europe to

Women And Gender In Early Modern Europe: Summary
The citation for the first source chosen is as follows: Wiesner, Merry E. Women and Gender in Early
Modern Europe. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1993. Print.. Although this source covered a
variety of information, I chose to focus on just a few key elements in the book. The key elements I
chose to focus on were the sexuality of women, rape, and abortions. First, this book talks about the
sexuality of women. Back in those days, women were considered lower than men purely on the fact
that medical doctors had the notion that women had the sexual organs of men but inside out
(Wiesner, 56). Second, I chose to target the issues of rape in the past. Women rarely came forward to
accuse a man of rape (Wiesner, 61). This leads to the thought that more women were raped than that
came forward, directing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
First, if women learned about caretaking and medicine, they almost always learned it from their
mothers (Clark, 255). This was because medical schools were not yet available to women (Clark,
255). Of course, this was a very limited amount of knowledge that was available to them, but there
were some cases where women obtained private lessons on medicine (Clark, 255). Later in life,
when women had families, they would use the knowledge they had obtained in medicine on their
families and friends (Clark, 255). This source had beneficial information on the ways women were
taught medicine. This source also goes on to talk about the social expectations of a women who
knew medicine, which would also be an interesting topic to delve into further for my final paper.
Ultimately, this source is helpful because it gives information on the way women learned medicine
and then used their knowledge. The source explains that women would basically become the doctor
for their families and neighbors with only a crude understanding of medicine, which is a truly
interesting topic. Source

Supernatural Explanations In Early Modern Europe
Supernatural explanations were the most acceptable form of explanation used during Early Modern
Europe. Religion was the underline foundation for supernatural explanations. Science had not yet
replaced the supernatural when explaining the unknown at the time. However, their lack of scientific
methodology would not steer them away from beginning to use more natural explanations instead of
supernatural ones. Between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, there was a turning point where
supernatural explanations were abandoned, and then replaced with more natural explanations. To
demonstrate this abandonment, this essay will first analyze the supernatural explanations that took
place before the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Then this ... Show more content on
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Religion was the dominating influence of the population at this time. Every facet of a commoners'
life revolved around religion. So it would be natural to assume that religion would dominate their
influence over their explanations for the unknown. Now supernatural explanations were usually
determined by what the nature of the event that took place. If there was a positive event, then the
supernatural explanation would usually be because of an act of God. If there was a negative event,
then the explanation would be based off of an act of the Devil. This is where magic will take hold as
being the most common supernatural explanation for negative events. Healing through religious
piety were the most common supernatural explanations that were correlated with an act of God.
However, there were fine lines between rites of healing that would be considered an act of God or an
act of the Devil. If they were conducted by a legitimate member of the church then they would be
considered by the Church and society as being an act of God. However, if they were conducted by a
non–legitimate person, who was not seen by either the Church or society as being legitimate, then
that was seen as an act of the Devil. Constance Classen identified in her book, The Deepest Sense ,
that most rites of healing through piety involved similar religious gestures or verses. However, the
crucial factor was the legitimacy of the person conducting those

The Effects Of The Witch Hunt In Early Modern Europe
In early modern Europe, approximately 90,000 prosecutions for witchcraft transpired (Levack, The
Witch–Hunt in Early Modern Europe, 2016, p. 21). Although what caused this iniquity cannot be
narrowed down to any one event, there are a number of factors that are more predominant than
others. The evolution of many facets of government in addition to naturally occurring disasters, such
as crop failure, created a crisis mentality. This shaped the framework for what was to become the
witch–hunts that plagued Europe throughout three centuries. While some historians have argued that
religion was the principal factor, there is a more compelling argument that social changes were, in
fact, the catalyst for the witch panic.
Points that are often ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
88–89). Literature like this gave the ruling class reason to deem witchcraft as a threat.
Moreover, as the ruling elite controlled the judicial process, their fear of witchcraft instigated
another precondition to witch–hunts, laws supporting them. In the absences of a clearly defined
jurisdiction overseeing crimes of witchcraft and the necessary "procedural tools" to successfully
prosecute accused witches, witch–hunts were not able to arise. Thus, the ruling elite would establish
new legal codes or statutes to accommodate these needs. Once the local courts were strengthened
through these new laws there was a greater probability that a witch–hunt would ensue (Levack, The
Witch–Hunt in Early Modern Europe, 2016, pp. 160–161).
Finally, the third precondition to the witch–hunts the manifestation of a crisis mentality within the
community. This crisis mentality could develop by either direct discussions regarding witchcraft or
indirect sources such as economic, political, or religious developments (Levack, The Witch–Hunt in
Early Modern Europe, 2016, p. 162). For instance, poor economic developments incited a sequence
of accusations in Germany between 1589 and 1591. Following the hunt's loss of control, even the
town's former mayor was not immune to being accused and eventually executed (Levack, The
Witchcraft Sourcebook, 2015, p. 199).
However, preconditions alone were not enough to initiate a

The Witch-Hunt In Early Modern Europe: Source Analysis
During my study of witchcraft I looked into a number of sources to help me gain insight into the
period of 1560–1660 in order to put forward a strong argument in my coursework. A valuable source
was Levack "The witch–hunt in early modern Europe". It offers the reader a thorough and objective
examination of witch–hunts and is consistent with the numbers of explanations given from religion
to the misogynistic argument. The explanations provided are both easy to understand and therefore
have been beneficial to help me form my own conclusions. His book is easily followed with its
layout of various tables, charts and references to specific witch–hunt episodes in addition to a
bibliography provided for further research.
Andrew Pickering ('Different Interpretations of Witch–hunting in Early Modern Europe 1560–1660')
was also useful in providing a number of balanced arguments for a range of factors including the
'Age of Anxiety' and Reformation period, which both heavily influenced the witch–hunts. The
source overall was engaging and accessible which encouraged myself to gain in depth insight on the
decline and end of witch–hunts for my coursework. However, it can be argued for being too
simplistic when considering the impact of certain interpretations such as the impact of catastrophe.
A further source I found extremely informative was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The website on the gendercide was less helpful for gaining a understanding of witchcraft, however,
when looking at the involvement of misogyny this source was extremely detailed in providing
information with the background to this period and forming their own conclusions on who was
responsible. Although this could be biased because the website wholly revolved around how the
gendercides affect the witch–hunts, it helped to form my own perspective on how misogyny
impacted the

The Rise of Witch Hunts in Europe During the Early Modern...
The Rise of Witch Hunts in Europe During the Early Modern Period
Tens of thousands of people were persecuted and put to death as witches between 1570 and 1680 –
known as the great age of witch–hunts. Europeans had an extensive range of magical beliefs and
practices, mainly due to the Christian belief that magic exists. The elite believed in magic as
fervently as the most ignorant peasant. It was believed that some members of the society sold their
soul to the devil giving them power to inflict pain on others and take part in supernatural
performances. Famous intellectuals such as James V1, or the internationally famous lawyer Jean
Bodin, publicly declared the existence and reality of witchcraft ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This explains why many individuals falsely testified against those that were being tortured and
maimed so they would not be accused of being witches. "Only a few were able to withstand severe
and prolonged torture without admitting to what they thought their interrogators wanted to hear."[4]
Those who believed that real witches existed, and were an insult to God, trusted that the legal
process of punishing would be assisted with divine power which would protect the innocent from
accusation or prevent them from giving way under torture and making false confessions of guilt.
King James put it in his Daemonologie that, "God will not permit that any innocent persons shalbe
slandered with that vile defection: for then the divell would find waies anew, to calumniate the best."
[5] With the state and both religion stating that even through torture innocent people could not be
proven guilty no–one challenged it and everyone accepted it. Therefore the tortured would admit the
guilt and increase the numbers of witches in the modern period.
Some historians argue that the staging of witch trials and persecution was a large instrument of
social control. A method used by the powerful to be in command of the weak and poor. Most witch–
hunting occurred in countries where the population was divided into many different faiths, each
Church wanted

The Better Angels Of Our Nature
Today, in a social media ridden world where there's no communication gap, allows news from
around the world to be delivered to us in matter of seconds. Almost every day we hear about a
shocking act of violence, whether it's a terrorist bombing, a senseless rape or a gruesome murder.
These tragedies makes us wonder, "What is the world coming to?" However, we forget to realize
that in fact today's world is much more peaceful compared to how dangerous life was thousands of
years ago. As pinker stated, "Brutality was once woven into the fabric of daily existence" (2).
Therefore, in order to understand the violence we witness today, it's important to acknowledge how
bad the world was in the past. In this paper, just as pinker did in his book "The Better Angels of our
Nature", I will also argue that violence has decreased tremendously over the centuries by using
numerous evidence and statistical data. The Pacification process, Civilizing process, and other
sanctions throughout millenniums are just some of the changes that resulted in the decline of
violence throughout history.
In his book "The Better Angels of our Nature", Pinker uses works from Homeric Greece, evidence
from The Old Testament, and early modern Europe to support his claim that after a millennia of
bloody violence, human kind is entering a peaceful existence. In order allow readers to understand
the violence we witness today, Pinker begins by examining the origins of violence; He uses
Chimpanzees who has the traits

Exile In Early Modern Europe
Exile has played an important part in the story of Early Modern Europe, and in regards to England,
it can be said to have bookmarked a large section of the dynastic period. The period began with
Henry Tudor returning from exile to become king while at the far end James II taking flight into
exile after the Glorious Revolution. In the middle of this time, exile is again demonstrated by
Charles II managing escape abroad during the Civil War, returning in the restoration of 1660. With
this in mind though it seems major elements in the history of the Catholic diaspora were neglected
in studies of the Reformation, with previous research undertaken as being as Geert Janssen describes
"piecemeal and antiquarian in nature". Research tended to focus

The Role Of Antisemitism In Early Modern Europe
Having considered anti–Jewish sentiment in Early Modern Europe, it is reasonable to look at how
Jews were treated during the Enlightenment period in Germany and whether antisemitism was
evident. During this period, Jews did encounter individuals who demonstrated an acceptance of
them. For instance, Christian Wilhelm Von Dohm was a German scholar who determined that it was
believed that Jews acted in the way they did because of the circumstances they were put in. He
further argued that "any other group of men, under such conditions, would be guilty of identical
errors." Moreover, it is "because of these prejudices that prevent [a Jew] from becoming a good
citizen." Therefore, it is apparent that during this time period, some scholars tried

Witchcraft In Early Modern Europe
Over the years, Witchcraft has been known as a hysteria all over the world. The hysteria started in
Europe but later on moved to the United States. For my paper, I will conduct research over this
Witchcraft hysteria in Early Modern Europe. Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe was seen as an
overwhelming situation during the 16th to the 18th century for many people. As for my paper, I will
discuss many topics like the history, the trials, who we accused, why they were accused, and what it
was like for many people during this time.
Witchcraft is where people believed that others were practicing the use magical powers or their
beliefs. In Europe, witchcraft was used for controlling the people in the community who did not
agree with expectations ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In Luxembourg Germany, there was 150 witches burned to death between the years of 1580 and
1599. In Europe where there are smaller territories, they world hold bigger trials. For example, in
the year of 1589 on March, 20th, there was a 14 teen year old boy who said that he had flown with
his cousins, where there were cattle, and bewitched them. He was later on executed. Another
example is a man, who happened to be married and was a horse wrangler, saw himself as a witch
finder and a healer. With those two things that he saw himself got put on trial, ended up being
tortured, and then he was finally burned to death in 1587. Even though I only went into great detail
with two of the punishments/tortures, there were many more like being hung and being beheaded.
Even though the witch–hunt trials did reach their peak in the late 16th century, they eventually
started to have a recession in the 17th century. The witch trials started to move across the ocean to
the United States, called the Salem Witch–Hunt Trials in 1692. However, one of the last executions
that happened in the Europe was in 1793, in

Study Guide Essay
1) What theological concerns prompted Martin Luther's challenge of the authority of the Catholic
Church? What specific reforms did he advocate?
–The church was saying that you needed to be saved and you needed Catholic priest to be directly
involved in your path to salvation. Luther put emphasis on an individual's personal relationship with
God through Jesus.
2) What were the circumstances of the English Reformation?
–Events of the English Reformation were in part associated with the wider process of feudalism and
rise of nationalism, rise of common law and more.
3) By the end of the sixteenth century, which European countries had become Protestant and which
had remained Catholic?
–PROTESTANT: Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
On the other hand, in an absolute monarchy, the monarch is presumed to be God–(or other deity)–
ordained, and rules with no limits on their power.
8) What factors encouraged the evolution of a constitutional government in England and the
Netherlands?
–A bitter civil war, 1642–1649. Both had a prominent merchant class and enjoyed unusual
prosperity. Both built commercial empires overseas with minimal state interference.
9) How did Louis XIV maintain control over the nobles of France? What were some of the
structures of absolutism during his reign?
–He has a large standing army that kept order.
11) What factors led to the dramatic population growth of Europe between 1500 and 1700?
–American food crops improved Europeans' nutrition and diets. Increased resistance to epidemic
diseases after the mid–17th century. European population, between 1500–1800, increased from 81–
180 million. Rapid growth of major cities. Cities increasingly important as administrative and
commercial center.
12) What are the characteristics of capitalism in the early modern age? What financial innovations
supported the growth of capitalism in Europe?
– Joint–stock companies like EEIC and VOC organized commerce on a new scale. Capitalism
actively supported by governments, especially in England and Netherlands. Protected rights of

private property, upheld contracts, settled disputed.
13) What are some of the social changes that resulted from the

The History Of Syphilis In Early Modern Europe
Early modern Europe was no stranger to maladies and disease. Sickness and pain were not an
uncommon sight amongst all of Europe's social strata. However, the end of the fifteenth century
would see a particularly unpleasant infection. This disease, although referred to by a variety of
names throughout its history, is now known by the term syphilis. Although its exact origins are not
known, the first recorded case of syphilis appeared in 1495 in Naples. The disease likely found its
way to the city through the mercenary soldiers of Charles VIII. Medics and physicians of the early
modern period understood little about syphilis, or as it was often referred to at the time, morbus
gallicum (from Latin meaning French disease), as evidenced by their lack of success in discovering
an effective treatment of the disease. However, the medical works that manifested as a reaction to
the outbreak of syphilis in Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries did exemplify the
growth in the understanding of spread and transfer of disease. Although much of the rhetoric that
explained the existence and acquisition of syphilis as part of a grander punishment of the infected
through the will of God, medical writers in this era successfully found a connection ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
All of the documents sourced for my work are written in English, however, not all of the works were
originally produced in English. The treatise, Of the VVood called Guaiacum that Healeth Frenche
Pockes, originally written by Ulrich von Hutten, a Hessian knight, satirist, and humanist, received
an English translation in 1539. Originally titled, De Guaiaci Medicina et Morbo Galico (1519),
Hutten wrote the book whilst he suffered from the disease himself. In his writing, Hutten described
the pains inflicted by syphilis along with his method of treatment using the wood Lignum vitae also
known as

Religion, Superstition & Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe
|HIST208–13B (HAM) |
|Religion, Superstition & Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe |
Early Medieval Period:
Mid–5th – mid 9thC (c.450–850CE)
Augustine died in 430 as the Vandals were besieging his city of Hippo. Some 20 years before, Rome
had fallen. In the West the ancient empire was a thing of the past; in its place a variety of `barbarian
kingdoms', although for the most part considering themselves a part of the Roman Empire.
New circumstances called for re–appraisal of the church: its position and purposes. A pragmatic
response to changed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Catholicity & unity are co–equal marks of true church along with holiness.
4. Augustine: developed and refined Optatus on the Donatists. Identified the Church as the body of
Christ with the Catholic Church of his day, with its hierarchy and sacraments, and with its centre in
Rome. Thus Augustine underlines catholicity: this is the distinguishing factor which marks the 'true
church' from merely localised sects. 3 specific views of Augustine on the Church:
i) Basically holds concept of the Christian society of Christ's mystical body. [Christ has triple mode
of existence: eternal Word; God–man mediator; the Church of which he is head & the faithful the
members.] ii) Church unity follows logically from fellowship of love. Members of one body; unity
of belief – hence heresy a breach of unity, not just difference of opinion. Antithesis of love is the
spirit that promotes schism. iii) On biblical grounds the Church is a community of both saints &
sinners. Separation only comes at final judgement. Therefore 'two' churches: the essential/invisible
church contained within the outward empirical church. (To what extent did this distinction allow for
the development of corruption within the empirical church?)
Challenges to Primacy of Rome:
The East on Rome Crucial question: Whether or not this undoubted primacy of

Women On The Margins Summary
Your question asks us "How does one of the women discussed in Women on the Margins illuminate
a particular aspect or aspects of gender in early modern Europe?" I feel that Gliki gave us light on
what it was like to live in the seventeenth century on being a Jewish woman, and also it sheds light
on the struggle she had to go through keep her family together as best as she could. She also showed
us that she was able to rise through the ashes like a phoenix from all her hardships that she had to
experience throughout her life.
She had to pay off his debt and make her own money in order to make sure that she was not in debt
and that she would be able to take care of her family. What aspects of early modern Europe that our
writer Natalie Zemon Davis did a great job of showing us. I feel that she did a great job in showing
how women in early modern Europe went through many hardships was because of their gender as
women. Some of these tribulations was the fact that it ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Most times women were not taught how to read and write so the fact that Gliki took inspiration from
her childhood and her father's teachings she was able to become the woman that she was. Reading
about this in our book made my view on the subject widen more than ever before, rather than just
looking at one gender and how that one gender affected the seventeenth century. Women in the
Jewish religion were able to do more than women who practiced other religions. One example,
Catholic women could not do many things like for example, "Although every convent had to have a
priest available to say Mass and hear confessions because the Catholic Church ruled these were
functions that no woman could perform, all of the other administrative duties and much of the
spiritual counseling of novices and residents were carried out by women" (209

Religion During The Early Modern Period Essay
Religion was so central to political and military conflict in the early modern period because religion
encompassed the era due to the strongly religious cultural society. The centre of conflict deriving
from the Catholic and Protestant divide, which caused conflict within politics and the military,
because the opposing sides fought over religious territory and popularity. The centre of the conflict
within these sectors of religion was The Reformation and the wars which followed, which created a
struggle for power as different religions gained new support and thus power, and others experienced
reduced power as a result. The resulting political and military turmoil created the growth of
secularism, which attempted to stabilize politics and the military by increasing control. Therefore
religion was so central to political and military conflict in the early modern period because the
period was so strongly religious that it had more of an impact on political and military conflict than
any other factor, because it was held in a higher regard than politics and the military sustained
individually.
Religion in the early modern period was the source of people's identity because people were
strongly religious due to religious values encompassing the way that society functioned due to the
strongly religious culture, a strong contrast with today. "Popular religious practices and beliefs were
actually derived from liturgical paradigms of an incredibly vivacious late medieval Catholic

Main Forces Of Change: The Main Forces Of Early Modern Europe
The modern Europe started around 1500, at least according to most of the experts(...). Since that
date Renaissance had been moving in Italy for 150 years and the idea for Renaissance had been
spiriting throw Europe. It is impossible to get the best live in Renaissance in brief or short period.
The church was the center of Europe culture when the Rome had been fall and lost it dominate. In
this essay will examine the main forces of Early modern Europe. The first forces of change is the
religion,the period between 1550 and 1650 described as age of religious wars. The Protestant
reformation had divided western Christianity into Catholicism and Protestantism. The divide
between a new denominations was deep. In addition the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Only a few other cities approach the size of; say, Birmingham, Alabama, or Stockton, California,
today: Paris had 200,000, Naples had 150,000, and Venice had l00,000. Then there was a clutch of
smaller cities at about 50,000: London, Amsterdam, Moscow, Lisbon, Madrid, Rome, and Florence.
Constantinople was the largest city in Europe in 1500, but that had only 400,000 people. Only a few
other cities reach the size of, say, Birmingham, Alabama, or Stockton, California, today: Paris had
200,000, Naples had 150,000, and Venice had l00,000. Then there was a clutch of smaller cities at
about 50,000: London, Amsterdam, Moscow, Lisbon, Madrid, Rome, and Florence.
Humanism played a huge role in education during the Renaissance with the goal to improve the
lives of citizens and help their communities.
The Humanists of the Renaissance created schools to teach their ideas and wrote books all about
education.
Petrarch was an Italian scholar and poet in Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists. He
believed in the immense behavior and practical value of the study of ancient

Economic Changes In Early Modern Europe
Eve Orbach
10H1
October 22nd Economic Change in Early Modern Europe
The Early Modern Period of Europe was a time of vast change in the economy due to the Price
Revolution, multiple wars and extremely high taxes, the Peasant Revolts, and the discovery of new
lands during the Age of Exploration. During the Early Modern Period there were no classic
examples of the average European citizen because of the unique religion, climate, population, etc, of
each region. The one similarity that all Europeans shared was that they were all going through
significant economic change (even though most of the Europeans were unaware of this). In Europe
during the sixteenth century, the large majority of the population either lived and worked on small
towns or farms (about %90). Manors, the Church, and the government took usually more than half
of what the peasants farmed (the taxes from the peasants had a big role in supporting the power of
the state). Peasants sometimes payed their ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gold and silver were mainly mined from Potosi and Mexico. Because there was a lot of money
circulating, people who were selling items were able to charge more for what they were selling
because people were willing to pay (or had to pay) more money in order to get supplies. The
inflation of prices caused the wealthy to become even wealthier (the Price Revolution gave many
the opportunity to accumulate more wealth), and poorer citizens to lose a lot of money because they
had to pay the inflated prices. During the Price Revolution countries started to engage in
Mercantilism, which is when countries would import more goods than they would export.
Mercantilism is based on the belief that there is a certain number of specie that is circulating, and
when one country gains specie, another country loses that specie. Mercantilism helped countries
become more self–sufficient and also made countries

Attitudes Toward Nature In Early Modern Europe
To explore how attitudes to nature changed in early modern Europe, we must first understand how
nature was perceived in the pre–modern era. This essay will look into the pre–modern Christian
theological view, before exploring the early modern era that was largely shaped by the scientific
revolution and ideas of humanism that developed during the renaissance.
Attitudes towards nature in the pre–modern or medieval period, were largely based on Christian
theological views and Aristotelian science. Despite the two usually seen as complete opposites,
religion and God's plan were often considered the scientific explanation, to things such as gravity.
The Earth was viewed as the centre of the universe, created by God. Aristotelian science was mainly
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nature was no longer seen as something wild and untameable, instead it was seen as a human right
to tame it and to exploit it and use it for the benefit of human society. The work or Kepler, Descartes
and Bacon also largely showed humans to be superior and that we should exercise our control over
the once wild seeming nature. Minding of the land had its roots during the scientific revolution, and
had a big impact on attitudes to nature. Nature was seen to be a selfish woman who was keeping her
precious stones and minerals to herself, and it was man's right to take these minerals and use it for
our own benefit, doing this through mining. The chain of being also had a great impact on the
changing attitudes, as it quite literally showed humans to be superior to nature. And once again gave
way to the idea that humans have a right to domineer over

Tempel Anneke Trial Essay
Witch trials are not new to people who know or enjoy history, in fact, they are a staple of Early
Modern European history. It is a common misconception that witch trials were nothing but an
excuse to hunt shadows and get back at people they did not like, that there was a sense of mad
hysteria like in The Crucible. The Trial of Tempel Anneke is a trial record from 1663 that on the
surface does not have much too it, but in fact shows the reader a lot of the inner psyche of common
people from this time as well as how empirical the courts were in these court trials
First is how the work conveys information to the reader. The trial is descriptive in that it shows the
reader more directly what the people involved thought happened during this trial. This is in place of
the work being prescriptive in which it tells the reader what people thought should happen. As the
entire work is the trial's notoriety, its official record, it can be assumed that those involved had to be
absolutely certain of what what happened and who is to blame. So when an inquisitor wrote a letter
describing the testimonies, it was what they thought happened, giving the reader a good look into
the inner thinking of these men. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Dahms explanations of the text is minimal, allowing for the reader to see what mattered to common
people at this time based on real testimonies and letters. The work reveals a lot of the inner working
of people who would have their tale told. Most people do not write down how they see the world,
but this case shows modern readers that early modern Europe was a world of magic and witches,
and the fight against Satan was unending. It helps show that the witch hunting craze Europe
experienced was not just hunting shadows and attacking enemies, but at its core was, in their minds,
a war to defeat Satan and go to

Men And Women Were Equally Constrained By Gender...
During the years between 1500 and 1700, known as the early modern period, men and women lived
within a society with gender expectations and standards to fulfil. The question at hand, whether men
and women were equally constrained by gender expectations, is an interesting one and it calls into
question the patriarchal hierarchy established to maintain the dominance and authority of men as
well as reveal that men were also constrained by gender expectation despite the literature supporting
such an argument being relatively little compared to that of the gender expectations of women. This
essay will look at how baldness played a key role in preventing men from living up to their gender
expectation and how it also impacted the patriarchal hierarchy both within the household and wider
society. This will then be countered with the gender expectations faced by women. This will look at
what it meant to be a woman in the early modern world and how strictly enforced it was on women
compared to men. This essay will look at texts by Will Fisher, Alexandra Shepherd and Anu
Korhonen to conclude that women and men were not equally constrained by gender expectations
and men did not face as much pressure as women did when it came to living up to such
expectations. Shepherd's Meanings of Manhood in Early Modern England is an interesting text that
discusses that masculinity is not as simple as it appears to be and that in the early modern era
masculinity made 'socially crippling distinctions

Early Modern European Women
The Early Modern period in European history was a time of great upheaval, one that lead to shifting
and changing views and policies in many fields; among these many historically important changes
was the very beginning of the women's rights movement. Although full–scale change in equality for
women was (and some might say still is) quite distant from this time period, the embryo that will
eventually grow into feminism and gender equality can be seen during this time period through the
primary source documents left to us by those who wrote and worked during this "Early Modern"
time. In this sense, I disagree with the position of Randolph Starn, as I believe this time period does
deserve its own title, as it truly is a transitional period for European history, one in which the
changes to come in the near future can be seen by those with a keen eye. The petitions of women to
royal courts, the wills and bequests created by women, and the rise of Elizabeth as a capable English
Queen, absent of a King altogether, shows how the gender divide is beginning to be re–examined by
Europeans. During the period just prior to the accepted beginnings of "Early Modern" Europe (pre–
1450), gender roles had been set in stone for hundreds of years. Europe was, without any argument,
a fully patriarchal society. Men worked, men created art, music, and culture, and men ruled. Women
had little in the way of options for social climbing, education was lacking in availability for all but
the

APWH Ch
AP WORLD HISTORY Chapter Processing Work INTRODUCTION Historical Thinking Skill
Exercise: Periodization: Compare the author's periodization in Parts One through Six to the Colleges
Board's historical periodization. How do the author's dates and titles compare to the College
Board's? What explains the similarities and the differences? Why do you suppose the periodization
in world history can be so controversial? UNIT 1 CHAPTER 1: Historical Thinking Skill Exercise:
Historical Argumentation: On pages 26–43 of this text, how does the author explain the emergence
of agriculture? What inferences does he make? Big Picture Question (BPQ) #2: The Agricultural
Revolution marked a decisive turning point in human history. What evidence ... Show more content
14. What immediate developments in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries might have
influenced the cultural patterns depicted in these illustrations? How does the broad context of the
Columbian exchange help you understand these painting? BPQ#1: To what extent did Europeans
transform earlier patterns of commerce, and in what ways did they assimilate in to those older
patterns? BPQ#3: What lasting legacies of early modern globalization are evident in

The Tragedy Of Medieval Society
Medieval society was a society bound by personal relations with an authority based on the twin
pillars: classical antiquity and Christianity. Between 1300 and 1800 European society underwent a
gradual cultural deconstruction, through the religious reformation, scientific revolution, and
development in social relations which broke down the authority of these twin pillars and redefined
European society. This was a radical break that marked the 18th century as a critical moment of
change in European history.
Life in pre–enlightenment Europe centred around the divine, which answered questions that couldn't
be answered by accepted knowledge. Everyday thinking was influenced by the religious linear
historical progression that was distinct and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
People found comfort and commonality between each other in the church, and thus a common,
unified cultural and religious identity was shared there. There was also apprehension about their
survival, both in everyday life and eternal Salvation, and thus found comfort in the sacred. Thus, the
Church was important not just as a place of worship but also as a form of identity and comfort.
Community was not only experienced through the church, and the Early Modern period can be
characterised as a period of development from "Space" to "place" – creating places with meaning for
the community. Rural society was a topographical patchwork wherein rich and poor were bound by
the harvest quality each year. Only 10 – 20 percent of Early Modern Europeans lived in towns.
Towns were the local political, economic, administrative and cultural centres, however the extent of
urbanisation differed between states and were dependant on several factors including economic
shifts, political forces, and socio–economic diversity. Thus, urban society experienced,
accommodated, and influenced social, economic, and cultural change in this period, as towns were
the forefront of the major trends.
The development of universitas in the 12–13th centuries is crucial in the creation of intellectual
culture, and the concept of community in Early Modern Europe. People grouped together for
protection, as many were

Essay Changes in Early Modern Europe
Early modern Europe, specifically Spain and England, was going through major growing pains in
the period before discovery and settlement of the New World. Recovery from the Black Plague,
religious reformation, and newly formed nation–states were on the forefront of these changes. The
political environment, economy, and religion were all intertwined during the upheaval of the Old
World which proved to be a driving force in the search for and eventual settlement of new lands.
The Reformation and the Counter–Reformation were major motivating factors in early modern
Europe leading to exploration of new lands. This began with Martin Luther's break from Catholic
doctrine in 1519. By the time the Reformation came onto the European stage, ... Show more content
Because of all this religious change in England and other nations, they were slower to explore and
colonize the New World. Economic changes occurred partly due to the newly formed nation–states
of Spain, Portugal, France, and England. Trade at that time was limited and expensive, so the
Europeans began looking for new trade routes to Asia. What they found was an altogether new place
that opened up many new opportunities for food sources, money, and slave labor. A motivator for
exploration was "defined primarily in terms of silver and gold and secondarily in terms of raw
materials." Another factor to consider was the population explosion that came about after the Black
Plague wiped out around 30 million Europeans producing "economic disruption." Spain was seeking
gold to finance further expeditions abroad and their own war with the Muslims on the home front.
Britain was seeking new trade markets for their wool with the collapse of their wool market at
home. Another mitigating economic factor was the rising prices created by the flood of American
silver into the European market. This caused rates to double on many goods, which benefited the
farmers and the merchants, but the majority of people suffered because their wages did not rise
proportionately. This increased the number of people living on the fringes of society and "thus built
up pressure to immigrate to the Americas." Intertwined with

The Night Battles and Peasants of Early Modern Europe
The Night Battles
Composing of most of the European population in the 1500's and 1600's, peasants played an
important role in the development of Europe. In his book The Night Battles, Carlo Ginzburg gives a
unique perspective on the lives of Friulian peasants through the analysis of inquisitorial records.
During the inquisitions, peasants were categorized as witches or benandanti, which literally means
well–farer. "The benandanti were a small group of men and women, who because they were born
with a caul, were regarded as professional antiwitches. They told inquisitors that, in dreams, they
fought ritual battles against witches and wizards to protect their villages and harvests from harm."
(Ginzburg. Back Cover) Although the lives of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
23) The lives of most peasants from the early modern period also depended on agriculture, as most
lived on farmland and depended on a good harvest for money and freedom. However, in order to
protect their crops, the early modern peasant depended on farming techniques and tools such as the
"three–field system" and innovations such as the use of mills and metal harvesting. (Merriman. 15)
Although their ways of taking care of their crops differed, nonetheless, agriculture was perhaps the
single most important part of a peasant's life.
Two similarities between the Friulian benandanti and the average peasant of the early modern
period, is the fact that they are both uneducated and subsequently influenced very easily. These two
things come hand–in hand, as the education level of peasants made it easy for them to be influenced.
Early modern peasants contributed greatly to the rise of the Renaissance and the Reformation
particularly because of their vulnerability to outside influences. Although education was limited for
the upper class during the Renaissance, and books were limited, the minds of Christian peasants
were also subjected to change during the time. This was no different for benandanti peasants who
according to Ginzburg were also introduced to humanism. Peasant, Niccolo Pellizzaro was
condemned in 1595 for saying that "the benedictions which priests

Witchcraft And The Social History Of Early Modern Europe

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